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AGRICULTURE 

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The  Rural  Science  Series 

LH.  Bailey  Editor 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


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Uiiral  Science 

EDITED  nv  L.  H.  BAILKY 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Ctural  Science 


THE  SOIL. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FRUIT  GROWING. 

BUSH-FRUITS. 

FERTILIZERS. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE. 

THE  FARMSTEAD. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING. 

FARM  POULTRY. 

THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS. 

THE  FARMER'S  BUSINESS  HANDBOOK. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE. 

THE  CARE  OF  ANIMALS. 

THE  HORSE. 

How  TO  CHOOSE  A  FARM. 

FORAGE  CROPS. 

BACTERIA  IN  RELATION  TO  COUNTRY  LIFE. 

THE  NURSERY-BOOK. 

PLANT-  BREEDING. 

THE  FORCIXG-BOOK. 

GARDEN-MAKING. 

THE  PRUNING-BOOK. 

THE  PRACTICAL  GARDEN-BOOK. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 
AGRICULTURE 


A  TEXT  -  BOOK  FOE 
SCHOOLS  AND    RURAL    SOCIETIES 


EDITED    BY 

L.    H.    BAILEY 


Twentv-first  Edition 

With  a  review  and  catechism  for  reading- 
clubs  and  teachers 


Nrto  fork 
THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON  :    MAC'MIUJIN  &  CO..  LTD. 
1914 

All  rig  hit  ret  erred 


COPVKIGHT,  1898,  1909 
By  L.  H.  BAILEY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  December,  1898 

Reprinted  with  corrections  January,  1900;  January,  May,  1901 ; 
February,  June,  1902;  February,  July,  1903;  March,  1904;  July, 
1905;  April,  1906;  August,  1907;  June,  1908;  January,  1909; 
Revised,  June  1909;  January,  1910;  June,  191J  •  January,  1912; 
January,  1913;  September,  December,  1914 


ggjount    Pleasant 

J.  HORACE  MCFARLAND  COMPANY 

HABRISBURCJ  •  PENNSYLVANIA 


PREFACE 

The  greatest  difficulty  in  the  teaching  of   agricul- 
ture is  to  tell  what  agriculture  is.     To   the  scientist. 
agriculture    has    been    largely   an    application    of    the 
teachings  of  agricultural  chemistry;   to  the  stockman, 
it    is  chiefly  the  raising  of   animals  ;   to  the   horticul- 
^  turist,    it    may    be    fruit-growing,   flower-growing,   or 
a  nursery    business  ;   and   everyone,   since   the    establish- 
ment   of     the    agricultural     colleges    and     experiment 
stations,    is    certain    that    it    is    a    science.     The    fact 
is,    however,    that    agriculture    is    pursued    primarily 
|  for  the  gaining  of  a  livelihood,  not  for  the  extension 
knowledge:    it  is,  therefore,  a  business,  not  a  sci- 


sS 


But  at  every  point,  a  knowledge  of  science  aids 
the    business.      It    is    on    the    science    side    that    the 
^experimenter    is    able    to    help    the    farmer.     On    the 
business  side  the  farmer  must  rely  upon  himself  ;   for 
*The    person    who    is  not   a  good   business  man  cannot 
<;Sb.e   a   good    farmer,  however   much    he   may   know   of 
""^science.      These   statements   are   no   disparagement   of 
science,  for,  in  these  days,  facts  of  science  and  scien- 
tific   habits    of    thought    are    essential     to    the    best 
farming:     but     they    are    intended    to   emphasize    the 


£4 1  1 89 


VI  PREFACE 

fact    that    business   method    is   the   master,   and   that 
teachings  of  science  are  the  helpmates. 

But  even  if  these  facts  are  fully  apprehended, 
the  teacher  and  the  farmer  are  apt  to  make  no 
distinction  between  the  fundamental  and  the  inci- 
dental applications  of  science,  or  between  principles 
and  facts.  Therefore,  the  mistake  is  often  made  of 
teaching  how  to  overcome  mere  obstacles  before  ex- 
plaining why  the  obstacles  are  obstacles.  How  to 
kill  weeds  is  a  mere  incident ;  the  great  fact  is  that 
good  farmers  are  not  troubled  with  weeds.  Rather 
than  to  know  kinds  of  weeds,  the  farmer  should 
know  how  to  manage  his  land.  How  to  know  the 
weeds  and  how  to  kill  them  is  what  he  calls  prac- 
tical knowledge,  but,  standing  alone,  it  is  really  the 
most  unpractical  kind  of  knowledge,  for  it  does  not 
tell  him  how  to  prevent  their  recurrence  year  after 
year.  The  learner  is  apt  to  begin  at  the  wrong 
end  of  his  problem.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
customary  discussions  of  under -drainage.  The  pupil 
or  the  reader  is  first  instructed  in  methods  of  lay- 
ing drains.  But  drainage  is  not  the  unit.  The 
real  unit  is  texture  and  moisture  of  soils  :  plowing, 
draining,  green -cropping  are  means  of  producing  a 
given  or  desired  result.  The  real  subject-matter  for 
first  consideration,  therefore,  is  amelioration  of  soil 
rather  than  laying  of  drains.  When  the  farmer  has 


PREFACE  VU 

learned  how  to  prepare  the  land,  and  how  to  grow 
plants,  and  how  to  raise  animals,  then  he  may 
enquire  about  such  incidental  details  as  the  kinds 
of  weeds  and  insects,  the  brands  of  fertilizers,  the 
varieties  of  apples,  when  he  shall  till,  whether  he 
shall  raise  wheat  or  sweet  corn.  The  tailor  first 
learns  how  to  lay  out  his  garment ;  but  the  farmer 
too  often  wants  to  sew  on  the  buttons  before  he 
cuts  his  cloth. 

Again,  the  purpose  of  education  is  often  misun- 
derstood by  both  teachers  and  farmers.  Its  purpose 
is  to  improve  the  farmer,  not  the  farm.  If  the  per- 
son is  aroused,  the  farm  is  likely  to  be  awakened. 
The  happy  farmer  is  a  more  successful  farmer  than 
the  rich  one.  If  the  educated  farmer  raises  no 
more  wheat  or  cotton  than  the  uneducated  neighbor, 
his  education  is  nevertheless  worth  the  cost,  for  his 
mind  is  open  to  a  thousand  influences  of  which  the 
other  knows  nothing.  One's  happiness  depends  less 
on  bushels  of  corn  than  on  entertaining  thoughts. 

Not  only  do  we  need  to  know  what  agriculture 
is,  but  we  should  know  the  relative  importance  of 
its  parts.  It  is  commonly  assumed  that  fertilizing 
the  land  is  the  one  most  fundamental  thing  in 
agriculture,  but  this  is  not  so  ;  for  if  but  one  thing 
about  fanning  practices  were  to  be  explained,  that 
thing  should  be  the  .tilling  of  the  land. 


Vlll  PREFACE 

Agriculture,  then,  stands  upon  business,  but 
science  is  the  staff.  Business  cannot  be  taught  in 
a  book  like  this ;  but  some  of  the  laws  of  science 
as  applied  to  farm -management  can  be  taught,  and 
it  is  convenient  to  speak  of  these  laws  as  the 
principles  of  agriculture.  These  principles  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  more  or  less  logical  order,  so  that  the 
teacher  may  have  the  skeleton  of  the  subject  before 
him.  The  subject  should  not  be  taught  until  it  is 
analyzed,  for  analysis  supplies  the  thread  upon  which 
the  facts  and  practices  may  be  strung.  The  best 
part  of  the  book,  therefore,  is  the  table  of  contents. 

A  book  like  this  should  be  used  only  by  persons 
who  know  how  to  observe.  The  starting-point  in 
the  teaching  of  agriculture  is  nature -study,  —  the 
training  of  the  power  actually  to  see  things  and 
then  to  draw  proper  conclusions  from  them.  Into 
this  primary  field  the  author  hopes  to  enter ;  but 
the  present  need  seems  to  be  for  a  book  of  prin- 
ciples designed  to  aid  those  who  know  how  to  use 
their  eyes. 

L.    H.    BAILEY, 

HORTICUTURAL   DEPARTMENT, 

CORNELL!  UNIVERSITY,  Dec.  1,  1898. 


ANALYSIS 

INTRODUCTION    (pages  1-15) 

Paragraphs 

1.  What  Agriculture  Is  .  . 

2.  The  Personal  Factors  upon  tchich  its  Success  Depend* — 

2a.    Upon  business  or  executive  ability 

26.    Upon  a  knowledge  of  natural  science 13-21 

3.  Its  Field  of  Production 

PART   I 
THE    SOIL 

CHAPTER    I 
THE   CONTENTS   OF   THE   SOIL,  (pages  16-36) 

1.  What  tlie  Soil  Is    .    .    .  •  -3,24 

2.  How  Soil  is  Made  — 

2«.    The  inorganic  elements  . 

•2I>.    The  organic  elements  and  agents 

'Jr.    Transportation  of  soils 

3.  The  Resources  of  the  Soil 

CHAPTER   II 

THE  TEXTURE  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SOIL  (pages  37-46) 

1 .  What  is  Meant  by  Texture 49-51 

2.  Why  Good  Texture  and  Structure  are  Important 52,53 

3.  How  Good  Structure  Is  Obtained 54-59 

4.  Structure  and  Manures 60 

fix) 


X  ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER   III 

THE   MOISTURE  IN  THE   SOIL  (pages  47-63) 
(By  L.  A.  CLINTON,  Director,  Storrs  Experiment  Station.  Conn.) 

Paragraphs 

1.  Why  Moisture  Is  Important 61-63 

2.  How   Water  is  Held  in  the  Soil 64-69 

3.  Hoiv  the  Moisture-holding  Capacity  of  the  Soil  May  be 

Increased  — 

3a.    The  capacity  of  the  soil 70-72 

3ft.    Capacity  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  humus  .  73,  74 

3c.    Capacity  may  be  increased  by  under-drainage    .  75-78 

3d.    The  capacity  is  increased  by  proper  tillage    .    .  79-81 

4.  The  Conservation  of  Moisture 82, 83 

CHAPTER   IV 
THE    TILLAGE  OF  THE   SOIL  (pages  64-76) 

1.  What  Tillage  Is 84-86 

2.  What  Tillage  Does 87-89 

3.  How  Tillage  Is  Performed  — 

3a.    By  deep-working  tools 90-97 

36.    By  surface-working  tools 98-101 

3c.    By  compacting  tools 102-104 

CHAPTER   V 

ENRICHING   THE    SOIL  —  FARM    RESOURCES  (pages  77-86) 

1.  What  Farm  Resources  Are 105-107 

2.  Cropping  Resources  — 

2a.    The  kinds  of    green -manures 108-111 

2&.    The  management  of    green-manures 112-117 

8.    Direct  Applications — 

3a.    Stable  manures 118-122 

36.    Other  dressings 123-126 


ANALYSIS  XI 

CHAPTER  VI 

ENRICHING  THE  SOIL—  COMMERCIAL  RESOURCES 
(pages  87-105) 

(By  G.  W.  CAVANAUGH,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemisty,  Cornell 
University) 

Paragraphs 

1.  The  Elements    in    tin-    .So,/  ..............  lL'7-133 

'2.  Nitrogen  ......................  134-139 

3.  Phosphoric  Acid  ...................  140-145 

4.  Potash    .......................  146-148 

5.  Amendments  .....................  149-153 

6.  Commercial  Fertilizers  — 

6a.    What  they  are  ................  154-157 

66.    Advice  as  to  their  use  ............  158-166 


PART   II 
THE   PLANT,  AND   CROPS 

CHAPTER   VII 
THE   OFFICES   OF   THE   PLANT  (pages  106-111) 

1.  The  Plant  and  the  Crop  ...............  167,168 

2.  The  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Soil  ...........  169-171 

3.  Tiie  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Climate  .........  172,173 

4.  The  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Animal  Life  .......  174,  175 

5.  The  Plant  has  Intrinsic  Value  to  Man  — 

5«.    As  articles  of   food  or  beverage     .......  176,177 

5&.    As  articles  used  in  the  arts  ..........          178 

.r»*'.    As  articles  or  objects  to  gratify  {esthetic  tastes   .  179-181 

CHAPTER   VIII 
How  THE   PLANT   LIVES  (pages  112-131) 

(By  B.  M.  DUOOAR,  Professor  1  1  Plant  Physiology,  Cornell  University) 
1.    The  Plant  Activities  .  ....  182.  183 


Xil  ANALYSIS 

2.  The  Factors  of   Growth —  Paragraphs 

2a.    Water  in  the  plant 184-189 

26.    Soluble  salts  from  the  soil 190-192 

2c.    Oxygen 193-19? 

2d.    Carbon  dioxid  and  sunlight 197-199 

2e.    Heat,  or  a  definite  temperature 200-202 

3.  The  Processes  of  Growth 203-207 

4.  Irritability 208-212 

CHAPTER    IX 

THE   PROPAGATION   OP   PLANTS  (pages  132-144) 

1.  The  Kinds  of  Propagation 213-215 

2.  Seedagc,  or  Propagation  by  Seeds  — 

2a.    Requisites  of    germination 216-221 

26.   The  raising  of   seedlings 222-226 

3.  Propagation  by  Buds  — 

3#.    Why  and    how  bud  propagation  is  used  ....  227,  228 

36.    Undetached  buds 229,  230 

3c.    Detached  buds 231-241 

CHAPTER    X 

PREPARATION    OF    LAND   FOR    THE    SEED  (pages  145-158) 

(By  I.  P.  ROBERTS,  Emeritus  Professor  of  Agriculture, 
Cornell  University) 

1 .  Factors  Which  Determine  the  Preparation  of  the  Seed-bed.  242,  243 

2.  The  Demands  of   the  Plant 244-240 

i>.  The  Preparing  of  the  Seed-bed 250-255 

4.  Application  of  the  Foregoing  Principle*  — 

4a.    Wheat 256-25<> 

46.    Maize,  or  Indian  corn 2(50,261 

4c.    Potatoes 2(52-2(54 

CHAPTER   XI 

SUBSEQUENT   CARE  OF  THE   PLANT  (pages  159-178) 

1.    By  Means  of  Tillage  — 

la.    In  general 265  270 

16.    In  fruit  plantations 271-277 


ANALYSIS  Xlii 

2.  By  Means  of  Pruning  and  Training —  Paragravht 

2a.    Pruning  vs.  training 278,  279 

26.    The  healing  of  wounds 280-284 

2c.    The  principles  of  pruning 285-289 

3.  By  Keeping  Enemies  in  Check  — 

3a.    The  kinds  of  enemies 290-293 

36.    The  preventives  and  remedies 294-303 

CHAPTER   XII 
PASTURES,  MEADOWS,  AND  FORAGE  (pages  179-200) 

(By  I.  P.  HUBERTS) 

1.  Grass 304-306 

2.  Permanent  Pastures  — 

2«.    Preparation  of  the  land 307-310 

2b.    Maintaining  the  pasture 311-317 

3.  Meadows  — 

3a.    Temporary  meadows 318-321 

36.    Permanent  meadows 322-325 

3c.    Kinds  of  grasses  for  meadows 326-329 

4.  Other  Forage  Plants 330-335 


PART    III 
THE   ANIMAL,  AND    STOCK 

CHAPTER   XIII 
THE   OFFICES  OF  THE   ANIMAL,  (pages  201-207) 

1.  The  Animal  and  the  Stock 336,337 

2.  T)ie  Animal  in  Its  Relation  to  the  Soil 338,339 

3.  The  Animal  in  Its  Relation  to  the  Crop 340,  341 

4.  The  Animal  has  Intrinsic  Value  to  Man  — 

4a.    As  articles  of  food 342-344 

46.    As  articles  used  in  the  arts 345,  346 

4c.    As  companions 347 

5.  The  Animal  as  a  Beast  of  Burden 348-350 

6.  The  Animal  as  a  Pest-destroyer 351,352 

7.  Tlte  Animal  Diversifies  Labor 353,  354 


XIV  ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER   XIV 
How  THE   ANIMAL  LIVES  (pages  208-238) 

(By  JAMES  LAW,  Ex-Director  of  the  New  York  State  Veterinary  College, 
Cornell  University) 

1.  The  Cell,  and  its  Part  in  the  Vital  Processes —  Paragraphs 

la.    The  cell 355 

Ib.    Single-celled  animals 356-359 

Ic.    Many-celled  animals 360-366 

2.  The  Food  of  Animals  — 

2a.    Kind  of  food 367, 368 

2ft.    Food  constituents 369-376 

3.  Digestion  of  Food — 

3a.    What  digestion  is 377,  378 

3ft.    The  saliva 379-385 

3c.    The  gastric  juice 386-393 

3d.    Intestinal  digestion 394-401 

4.  Absorption  of  the  Digested  Mattery  — 

4a.    How  absorption  takes  place 402-404 

46.    Destination  of  the  rich  blood  from  the  intestines.  405—409 

J.    Respiration,  or  Breathing  — 

5a.    What  breathing  is 410-413 

5b.    Blood-changes  in  respiration 414-418 

5c.    Amount  of  air  required 419-421 

6.     Work;    Waste;  Rest— 

6a.    Waste  of  tissue 422,  423 

66.    Applications  to  practice 424-426 

CHAPTER   XV 

THE   FEEDING   OP   THE   ANIMAL  (pages  239-257) 

(By  H.  H.  WING,  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in 
Cornell  University) 

1.  Sources  of  Food  of  Animals 427,428 

2.  How  the  Animal  Uses  Food    .  .  429-435 


ANALYSIS  XV 

3.  Composition  of  Fodders—  Paragraphs 

3a.    Classification      436 

36.    Water 437-439 

3c.    Ash 440, 441 

3d.    Albuminoids 442  444 

3e.    Carbohyhrates 445  447 

3/.    Fats 448,  449 

4.  Feeding  — 

4a.    Nutritive  ratio 450  457 

4ft.    Quantity  of  food  required 458-463 

4c.    Feeding  standards 464,  465 

4d.    Bulk  in  the  ration 466-468 

4e.    Palatableness 469, 470 

4/.    Cooking  and  preparing  the  food 471-473 

CHAPTER   XVI 

THE   MANAGEMENT   OF   STOCK  (page  258-278) 
(By  I.  P.  ROBERTS) 

1.  The  Breeding  of  Stock  — 

la.    What  is  meant  by  breeding 474-477 

1ft.    The  mental  ideal 478-481 

Ic.    How  to  attain  the  ideal 482-487 

2.  Where  Stock-raising  Is  Advisable 488-491 

3.  How  Much  Stock  May  be  Kept 492-500 

4.  The  Care  of  Stock — 

4a.    Housing 501-505 

4b.    Water 506, 507 

4c.     Food 508-510 

GLOSSARY  (pages  281-288) 

SUGGESTIONS   TO  READING  CLUBS  AND  TO  TEACHERS 
(pages  289-323) 

INDEX  (pages  325-336) 


THE   PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  What  Agriculture  Is 

1.  Agriculture,  or  farming,  is  the  business  of 
raising  products  from  the  land.     These  products 
are   of   two  classes :    crops,  or  plants   and  their 
products  ;    stock,  or  animals  and  their  products. 
The  former  are  direct  products  of  the  land  ;  the 
latter  are  indirect  products  of  the  land. 

2.  Agriculture    also    comprises,    to    a    certain 
extent,  the  marketing  or  selling  of  its  products. 
As  marketable  commodities,  the  products  are  of 
two  classes  :  primary,  or  those  which  are  put  on 
the  market  in  their  native  or  natural   condition, 
as  wheat,  potatoes,  bananas,    eggs,  milk,  wool; 
secondary,  or  those  which  are  put  on  the  market 
in   a   manufactured  condition,  as   butter,  cheese, 
cider,  evaporated  fruits. 

3.  The   chief    contribution   of    agriculture   to 
the  wealth  and  welfare  of  the  world  is  the  pro- 
duction of  food.     Its  second  contribution  is  the 
production  of   materials  for  clothing.     Its  third 

A  U) 


2  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

is  the  production  of  wood  or  timber,  used 
in  building  and  in  the  various  wood -working 
trades.  Other  contributions  are  the  production 
of  materials  used  in  medicine  and  in  various 
secondary  and  incidental  arts  and  manufactures. 

4.  The     ideal     agriculture     maintains     itself. 
That  is,  it  is  able  to  thrive  forever  on  the  same 
land    and    from    its    own    resources.     The    land 
becomes    more    productive    with    time,    and    this 
even    without    the    aid    of     fertilizing    materials 
from   the    outside.     This    state    is    possible    only 
with  a  mixed  husbandry,  in  which  rotations   of 
crops  and   the   raising  of   animals  are  necessary 
features.     The  more  specialized  any  agricultural 
industry  becomes,  the  more  must  it  depend  upon 
outside  and  artificial  aids  for  the  enrichment  of 
the  land  and   for  its  continued   support. 

5.  Agriculture  may  be  roughly  divided    into 
four  general   branches   or  departments  :    agricul- 
ture in  its  restricted  sense,  animal  industry,  for- 
estry, horticulture. 

6.  Agriculture  in  its  restricted  sense  —  some- 
times, but  erroneously,  called  agriculture  proper- 
is  a  term  applied   to  the     general  management 
of  lands   and  farms,  and   to  the  growing  of  the 
staple  grain  and  fiber  crops.    In  North  America, 
the  use  of  the  term  agriculture  has  been  restricted 
to  the  above  application   largely  through  the  in- 
fluence   of   agricultural  colleges    and    experiment 


INTRODUCTION  O 

stations,  in  which  the  general  field  of  agriculture 
has  been  divided  into  various  special  subjects. 

7.  Animal  industry  is  the  raising  of  animals, 
either   for   direct   sale   or  use  or  for   their   pro- 
ducts.    It  is  customary  to  speak  of  it  as   com- 
prising three  departments:    stock-raising,  or  the 
general   growing  of  mammals,  as   cattle,  horses, 
sheep;     dairy   husbandry,    or   the    production  of 
milk  and  milk  products;    poultry -raising,  or  the 
growing   of    fowls,  as    chickens,  turkeys,  geese, 
ducks.    In  its  largest  sense,  it  comprises  other  de- 
partments, as  apiculture  or   bee -raising,  fish -cul- 
ture, ostreaculture  or  oyster- raising,  and  the  like. 

8.  Forestry    is    the    growing    of    timber    and 
woods.     Its   objects  are  two :    to  obtain  a  sala- 
ble   product ;    to  produce   some   secondary   effect 
upon  the   region,  as  the  modification  of  climate 
or  the  preservation  of  the  water-supply  to  rivers 
and  lakes. 

9.  Horticulture     is     the    growing    of     fruits, 
kitchen  -  garden     vegetables,     and      ornamental 
plants.     It   has    been    divided    into   four   depart- 
ments :    pomology,    or    fruit-growing ;    olericul- 
ture,   or    vegetable  -  gardening  ;     floriculture,    or 
the  growing  of  flowers  and  plants  for  their  own 
or  individual  uses  as  means  of  ornament;    land- 
scape horticulture,  or  the  growing  and  planting 
of    ornamental    plants    for    their    uses    in   mass 
effects   in   the   landscape    (on   the   lawn). 


4  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

2.    The   Personal    Factors    Upon   Which    Its 
Success  Depends 

2a.    Upon    business    or    executive    ability 

10.  Since    the    farmer    makes    a     living     by 
means  of  trade,  it  follows  that  ability  to   man- 
age business  and  affairs  is  requisite  to  his  suc- 
cess.    Executive  ability  is   as  needful  to  him  as 
to  the   merchant  or  the   manufacturer  ;    and  the 
lack  of  such  ability  is  probably  the   commonest 
and  most  serious  fault  with  our  agriculture.     As 
the  conditions  of  trade  are  ever  changing,  so  the 
methods    of    the    farmer   must    be    amenable    to 
modification.     He   must   quickly   and   completely 
adapt    himself    to    the    commerce   of    the    time. 
Manifestly,     however,    this     business     capability 
cannot   be   taught   by  books.     It  is   a  matter  of 
temperament,    home    training,    and    opportunity. 
Like  all  permanent  success,  business  prosperity 
depends  upon  correct  thinking,    and    then  upon 
the    correct    application    of    the    thinking.      Suc- 
cessful   agriculture,    therefore,    is    a    matter    of 
personality   more    than    of    circumstances. 

11.  The  compound  result  of  executive  ability 
and  experience  may  be    expressed   in   the   term 
farm  -  practice.      It    is    the    judgment    of     the 
farmer   upon    the    question    in    hand.     However 
much    he    may    learn    from    science,    his    own 


INTRODUCTION  5 

experience  on  his  own  farm  must  tell  him  what 
crops  to  grow,  how  to  fertilize  his  land,  what 
breeds  and  varieties  to  raise,  when  and  how  to 
sow  and  to  reap.  The  experience  of  one  farmer 
is  invaluable  to  another,  but  each  farm  is 
nevertheless  a  separate  and  local  problem,  which 
the  farmer  must  think  out  and  work  out  for 
himself. 

12.  The    farmer   must    be    able    not   only    to 
raise  his  products,   but   also  to   sell    them.     He 
must   produce    either   what   the   trade    demands, 
or  be  able  to  sell  products  which  are  not  known 
in   the    general    market.     In    other  words,   there 
are  two  types  of  commercial   effort  in   farming : 
growing    the    staple     products    for    the    world's 
markets     (as    wheat,    beans,    maize,    meat),    in 
which  case  the  market  dictates  the  price  ;  grow- 
ing special  products  for  particular  or  personal  sale 
(as    the    products    of     superior    excellence,  and 
luxuries),  in  which  case  the  producer  looks   for 
his  customers  and  dictates  the  price. 

2b.    Upon  a   knowledge  of  natural  science 

13.  The  farmer,  however,  has  more  problems 
to  deal  with  than   those   connected   with   trade. 
He   must   raise    products :    and    such   production 
depends     upon     the     exercise    of     much    special 
knowledge  and  skill.    The  most  successful  pro- 


6  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

duction  of  agricultural  products  rests  upoii 
the  application  of  many  principles  and  facts  of 
natural  science ;  and  the  importance  of  such 
application  is  rapidly  increasing,  with  the  com- 
petitions and  complexities  of  civilization.  The 
study  of  these  natural  sciences  also  establishes 
habits  of  correct  thinking,  and  opens  the  mind 
to  a  larger  enjoyment  of  life, —  for  happiness, 
like  success,  depends  upon  habits  of  thought. 
The  farmer  should  live  for  himself,  as  well  as 
for  his  crops.  The  sciences  upon  the  knowledge 
of  which  the  best  agricultural  practice  chiefly 
depends  may  now  be  mentioned,  being  stated 
approximately  in  the  order  of  their  importance 
to  the  actual  practice  of  the  modern  farmer. 

14.  Physics.  The  physical  properties  and 
actions  of  bodies  are  fundamentally  concerned 
in  every  agricultural  result,  whether  the  farmer 
knows  it  or  not.  The  influences  of  light  and 
heat,  the  movements  of  fluids  in  soil,  plant  and 
animal,  the  forces  concerned  in  every  machine 
and  appliance,  are  some  of  the  most  obvious  of 
these  physical  problems.  So  important  to  the 
farmer  is  a  knowledge  of  physics  that  "agricul- 
tural physics"  is  now  a  subject  of  instruction 
in  colleges.  The  most  important  direct  applica- 
tion of  a  knowledge  of  physics  to  agricultural 
practice  has  come  as  a  result  of  recent  studies 
of  the  soil.  The  questions  of  soil  moisture,  soil 


texture,  the  tilling  of  land,  and  the  acceleration 
of  chemical  activities  in  the  soil,  are  essentially 
questions  of  physics;  and  these  are  the  kinds 
of  scientific  problems  which  the  farmer  needs 
first  to  apprehend. 

15.  Mechanics.     In  practice,  mechanics  is  an 
application   of    the   laws    of    physics.  ^  The    ele- 
mentary principles  of  mechanics  are  apprehended 
by    the    farmer    unconsciously,    as    a    result    of 
experience  ;     but     since    modern    agriculture    is 
impossible  without  numerous  and  often  elaborate 
mechanical    devices,    it    follows  that    it    is    not 
enough  that  the  farmer  be  self-taught.    At  every 
turn  the  farmer  uses  or  applies  physical   forces, 
in     tools,    vehicles,   and    machines.       His    work 
often    takes     him    into    the    field    of    civil     en- 
gineering.     To     show     how    much    the    farmer 
is    dependent   on    practical    mechanics,  we   need 
mention    only    implements    of    tillage,  problems 
associated    with     the    draughts    of    horse    tools, 
the    elaborate     harvesting    machinery,    threshers 
and  feed- mills  and  milk- working  machinery  and 
the   power   to   run    them,   fruit   evaporating   ma- 
chinery, pumps,  windmills,  hydraulic   rams,  con- 
struction of  water  supplies,  problems  of  animal 
locomotion. 

16.  Plant-knowledge,    or   botany.     Since   the 
plant   is   the    primary   product   of    the   farm,    a 
knowledge  of  its  characteristics  and  kinds  is  of 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

fundamental  importance  to  the  farmer.  From 
the  farmer's  standpoint,  there  are  four  great 
departments  of  plant -knowledge  :  physiology,  or 
a  knowledge  of  the  way  in  which  the  plant  lives, 
grows,  and  multiplies  ;  pathology,  or  a  knowl- 
edge of  mal- nutrition  and  diseases  ;  systematic 
botany,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  kinds  of  plants  ; 
ecology,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  inter-relations 
between  plants  and  their  environments  (or  sur- 
roundings), and  how  they  are  modified  by 
changes  in  environments,  by  crossing,  and  by 
breeding. 

17.  Animal-knowledge,  or  zoology.    There  are 
also   four    general    directions    in   which    animal  - 
knowledge    appeals    to    the    farmer :    physiology, 
with  its  practical   applications  of  feeding,  hous- 
ing, and  general  care  of  animals  ;   pathology,  or 
knowledge    of   mal -nutrition   and   diseases    (with 
special    applications    in   the   practice    of   surgery 
and  medicine) ;    kinds  of  animals,  and  the  life- 
histories   of   those  which    are    particularly  bene- 
ficial   or   injurious   to    agriculture    (with    special 
applications    in    economic    entomology    and    eco- 
nomic  ornithology) ;    ecology  and   breeding. 

18.  Chemistry.     There  are  two  general  direc- 
tions   in    which   chemistry   appeals   to   the    agri- 
culturist :     in    enlarging    his    knowledge    of    the 
life-processes    of    plants    and    animals ;     and    in 
affording  direct  information   of   the   composition 


INTRODUCTION  9 

of  many  materials  used  or  produced  on  the 
farm.  In  practice,  chemistry  aids  the  farmer 
chiefly  in  suggesting  how  he  may  feed  plants 
(fertilize  the  land)  and  animals.  So  many  and 
important  are  the  aids  which  chemistry  extends 
to  agriculture,  that  the  various  subjects  involved 
have  been  associated  under  the  name  of  "agri- 
cultural chemistry."  This  differs  from  other 
chemistry  not  in  kind,  but  only  in  the  subjects 
which  it  considers. 

19.  Climatology.      Climate    determines    to    a 
large    extent    the    particular    treatment    or    care 
which  the  farmer  gives  his  crops  and  stock.     It 
also   profoundly   influences    plants    and    animals. 
They   change    when    climate    changes,    or  when 
they    are    taken    to    other   climates.      Climate    is 
therefore    a   powerful    agency  in   producing   new 
breeds     and     new      varieties.      The     science    of 
weather,     or     meteorology,     is     also     intimately 
associated   with   the    work    of   the    farmer. 

20.  Geology.    The  agricultural  possibilities  of 
any   region    are    intimately   associated    with    its 
surface  geology,   or   the  way  in   which    the   soil 
was   formed.      A   knowledge   of   the    geology   of 
his   region   may   not    greatly   aid   the   farmer    in 
the   prosecution   of   his   business,    but   it   should 
add   much   interest  and   zest   to   his   life. 

21.  We  now  apprehend  that  agriculture  is  a 
complicated     and     difficult    business.      Founded 


10  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

upon  trade,  and  profoundly  influenced  by  every 
commercial  and  economic  condition,  its  suc- 
cessful prosecution  nevertheless  depends  upon 
an  intimate  and  even  expert  knowledge  of 
many  natural  sciences.  Aside  from  all  this, 
the  farmer  has  to  deal  with  great  numbers  of 
objects  or  facts:  thousands  of  species  of  plants 
are  cultivated,  and  many  of  these  species  have 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  varieties ;  many 
species  of  animals  are  domesticated,  and  each 
species  has  distinct  breeds.  Each  of  these  sep- 
arate facts  demands  specific  treatment.  More- 
over, the  conditions  under  which  the  farmer 
works  are  ever  changing :  his  innumerable  prob- 
lems are  endlessly  varied  and  complicated  by 
climate,  seasons,  vagaries  of  weather,  attacks  of 
pests  and  diseases,  fluctuations  in  labor  supply, 
and  many  other  unpredictable  factors. 

3.     Its  Field  of  Production 

22.  In  the  production  of  its  wealth,  agricul- 
ture operates  in  three  great  fields, — with  the 
soil,  the  plant,  and  the  animal.  Although  aided 
at  every  point  by  knowledge  of  other  subjects, 
its  final  success  rests  upon  these  bases;  and 
these  are  the  fields,  therefore,  to  which  a  text- 
book may  give  most  profitable  attention. 


INTRODUCTION  1 1 

SUGGESTIONS  ON  THE  FOREGOING  PARAGRAPHS 

la.  The  word  agriculture  is  a  compound  of  the  Latin  agri, 
"field,"  and  cultura,  "tilling."  Farming  and  husbandry  are 
synonymous  with  it,  when  used  in  their  broadest  sense ;  but  there 
is  a  tendency  to  restrict  these  two  words  to  the  immediate  prac- 
tice, or  practical  side,  of  agriculture. 

2a.  It  is  often  difficult  to  draw  a  line  of  demarkation  between 
agriculture  and  manufacture.  The  husbandmen  is  often  both 
farmer  and  manufacturer.  Manufacturing  which  is  done  on  the 
farm,  and  is  of  secondary  importance  to  the  raising  of  crops  or 
stock,  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  agriculture.  The  manipulation 
or  manufacturing  of  some  agricultural  products  requires  such 
special  skill  and  appliances  that  it  becomes  a  business  by  itself, 
and  is  then  manufacture  proper.  Thus,  the  making  of  flour  is 
no  longer  thought  of  as  agriculture;  and  the  making  of  wine, 
jellies,  cheese,  butter,  canned  fruits,  and  the  like,  is  coming  more 
and  more  into  the  category  of  special  manufacturing  industries. 
Strictly  speaking,  agriculture  stops  at  the  factory  door. 

3«.  Agriculture  is  often  said  to  be  the  most  fundamental  and 
useful  of  occupations,  since  it  feeds  the  world.  Theoretically, 
this  may  be  true ;  but  a  high  state  of  civilization  is  possible  only 
with  diversification  of  interests.  As  civilization  advances,  there- 
fore, other  occupations  rise  in  relative  importance,  the  one  de- 
pending upon  the  other.  In  our  modern  life,  agriculture  is 
impossible  without  the  highly  developed  manufacturing  and  trans- 
portational  trades.  Broadly  speaking,  civilization  may  be  said  to 
rest  upon  agriculture,  transportation,  and  manufacture. 

4it.  Mixed  husbandry  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the  growing  of 
a  general  variety  of  farm  crops  and  stock,  especially  the  growing 
of  grass,  grain,  with  grazing  (pasturing)  and  general  stock-rais- 
ing. It  is  used  in  distinction  to  specialty-farming  or  the  raising 
of  particular  or  special  things,  as  fruit,  bees,  vegetables,  beef, 
eggs. 

4b.  Self-perpetuating  industries  conduce  to  stability  of 
political  and  social  institutions.  "The  epochs  which  precede 
the  agricultural  occupation  of  a  country  are  commonly  about  as 


12  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

follows :  Discovery,  exploration,  hunting,  speculation,  lumber- 
ing or  mining.  The  real  and  permanent  prosperity  of  a 
country  begins  when  the  agriculture  has  evolved  so  far  as 
to  be  self-sustaining  and  to  leave  the  soil  in  constantly  better 
condition  for  the  growing  of  plants.  Lumbering  and  mining 
are  simply  means  of  utilizing  a  reserve  which  nature  has  laid 
by,  and  these  industries  are,  therefore,  self -limited,  and  are 
constantly  moving  on  into  unrobbed  territory.  Agriculture, 
when  at  its  best,  remains  forever  in  the  same  place,  and  gains 
in  riches  with  the  years;  but  in  this  country  it  has  so  far  been 
mostly  a  species  of  mining  for  plant-food,  and  then  a  rushing 
on  for  virgin  lands." — Principles  of  Fruit- Growing,  26. 

8a.  Forestry  is  popularly  misunderstood  in  this  country. 
The  forest  is  to  be  considered  as  a  crop.  The  salable  product 
begins  to  be  obtainable  in  a  few  years,  in  the  shape  of  trim- 
mings and  thinnings,  which  are  useful  in  manufacture  and  for 
fuel ;  whereas,  the  common  notion  is  that  the  forest  gives  no 
return  until  the  trees  are  old  enough  to  cut  for  timber.  One 
reason  for  this  erroneous  impression  is  the  fact  that  wood  has 
been  so  abundant  and  cheap  in  North  America  that  the  smaller 
products  have  not  been  considered  to  be  worth  the  saving;  but 
even  now,  in  the  manufacture  of  various  articles  of  commerce, 
the  trimmings  and  thinnings  of  forests  should  pay  an  income 
on  the  investment  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  If  a  manipu- 
lated forest  is  a  crop,  then  forestry  is  a  kind  of  agriculture,  and 
it  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  mere  botany  of  forest 
trees,  as  is  commonly  done. 

9a.  The  word  horticulture  is  made  up  of  the  Latin  hortus, 
"garden,"  and  cultura,  "tilling."  In  its  broadest  sense,  the 
word  garden  is  its  equivalent,  but  it  is  commonly  used  to  desig- 
nate horticulture  as  applied  to  small  areas,  more  particularly 
when  the  subjects  are  flowers  and  kitchen -garden  vegetables. 
Etymologieally,  garden  refers  to  the  engirded  or  confined 
(walled-in  or  fenced-in)  area  immediately  surrounding  the 
residence,  in  distinction  to  the  ager  (la)  or  field  which  lay 
beyond.  Hortus  has  a  similar  significance.  Paradise  is,  in 
etymology,  a  name  for  an  enclosed  area;  and  the  term  was 


INTRODUCTION  13 

given  to  some  of  the  early  books  on  gardening,  e.  g.,  Parkinson's 
"Paradisus  Terrestris"  (1629),  which  is  an  account  of  the  orna- 
mental plants  of  that  period. 

14a.  King's  book  on  "The  Soil"  explains  the  intimate 
relation  of  physical  forces  to  the  productivity  of  the  land;  and 
the  author  is  Professor  of  Agricultural  Physics  in  the  University 
of  Wisconsin.  There  is  a  Bureau  of  Soils  in  the  National 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  work  of  which  is  largely  in 
the  field  of  soil  physics.  The  physical  or  mechanical  analysis 
of  soils  is  now  considered  to  be  as  important  as  the  chemical 
analysis.  Some  of  the  physical  aspects  of  farm  soils  are  dis- 
cussed in  our  chapters  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  v. 

16a.  Ecology  (written  cacology  in  the  dictionaries)  is  the 
science  which  treats  of  the  relationship  of  organisms  (that  is, 
plants  and  animals)  to  each  other  and  to  their  environments. 
It  is  animal  and  vegetable  economy,  or  the  general  external 
phenomena  of  the  living  world.  It  has  to  do  with  modes  and 
habits  of  life,  as  of  struggle  for  existence,  migrations  and 
nesting  of  birds,  distribution  of  animals  and  plants,  influence 
of  climate  on  organisms,  the  way  in  which  any  plant  or  animal 
behaves,  and  the  like.  Darwin's  works  are  rich  in  ecological 
observations. 

16fe.  Environment  is  the  sum  of  conditions  or  surroundings 
or  circumstances  in  which  any  organism  lives.  An  environment 
of  any  plant  is  the  compound  condition  produced  by  soil, 
climate,  altitude,  struggle  for  existence,  and  so  on. 

18a.  It  is  customary  to  consider  agricultural  chemistry  as 
the  fundamental  science  of  agriculture.  Works  on  agricultural 
chemistry  are  often  called  works  on  agriculture.  But  agricul- 
ture has  no  single  fundamental  science.  Its  success,  as  we 
have  seen,  depends  upon  a  union  of  business  methods  and  the 
applications  of  science;  and  this  science,  in  its  turn,  is  a  coordi- 
nation of  many  sciences.  Chemistry  is  only  one  of  the  sciences 
which  contribute  to  a  better  agriculture.  Under  the  inspiration 
of  Davy,  Liebig,  and  their  followers,  agricultural  chemistry  made 
the  first  great  application  of  science  to  agriculture;  and  upon 
this  foundation  has  grown  the  experiment-station  idea.  It  is 


14  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

not  strange,  therefore,  that  this  science  should  be  more  inti- 
mately associated  than  others  with  agricultural  ideas  ;  but  we 
now  understand  that  agriculture  cannot  be  an  exact  or  definite 
science,  and  that  the  retort  and  the  crucible  can  solve  only  a  few 
of  its  many  problems.  In  particular,  we  must  outgrow  the  idea 
that  by  analyzing  soil  and  plant  we  can  determine  what  the  one 
will  produce  and  what  the  other  needs.  Agricultural  chemistry 
is  the  product  of  laboratory  methods.  The  results  of  thess 
methods  may  not  apply  in  the  field,  because  the  conditions  there 
are  so  different  and  so  variable.  The  soil  is  the  laboratory  in 
which  the  chemical  activities  take  place,  but  conditions  of 
weather  are  ever  modifying  these  activities ;  and  it  is  not  always 
that  the  soil  and  the  plant  are  in  condition  to  work  together. 

20a.  As  an  illustration  of  the  agricultural  interest  which 
attaches  to  the  surface  geology  of  a  region,  see  Tarr's  "Geo- 
logical History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt,"  Bull.  109  Cor- 
nell Exp.  Sta. 

21a.  Probably  no  less  than  50,000  species  of  plants  (or 
forms  which  have  been  considered  to  be  species)  have  been 
cultivated.  The  greater  number  of  these  are  ornamental  sub- 
jects. Of  orchids  alone,  as  many  as  1,500  species  have  been 
introduced  into  cultivation.  Nicholson's  Illustrated  Dictionary  of 
Gardening  describes  about  40,000  species  of  domesticated  plants. 
Of  plants  grown  for  food,  fiber,  etc.,  De  Candolle  admits  247  spe- 
cies (in  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants),  but  these  are  only  the  most 
prominent  ones.  Vilmorin  (The  Vegetable  Garden)  describes 
211  species  of  kitchen -garden  vegetables  alone.  Sturtevant 
estimates  (Agricultural  Science,  iii.,  178)  1,076  species  as  having 
been  "recorded  as  cultivated  for  food  use."  Of  some  species, 
the  cultivated  varieties  are  numbered  by  the  thousands,  as  in 
apple,  chrysanthemum,  carnation,  potfito.  Of  animals,  more 
than  50  species  are  domesticated,  and  the  breeds  or  varieties 
of  many  of  them  (as  in  cattle)  run  into  the  hundreds. 

216.  It  is  commonly  said  that  agriculture  is  itself  a  science, 
but  we  now  see  that  this  is  not  true.  It  has  no  field  of  science 
exclusively  its  own.  Its  purpose  is  the  making  of  a  living  for 
its  practitioner,  not  the  extension  of  knowledge.  The  subject  of 


INTRODUCTION  15 

mathematics  is  numbers,  quantity  and  magnitude;  of  botany, 
plants;  of  ornithology,  birds;  of  entomology,  insects;  of  chem- 
istry, the  composition  of  matter;  of  astronomy,  the  heavens: 
but  agriculture  is  a  mosaic  of  many  sciences,  arts  and  activities. 
Or,  it  may  be  said  to  be  a  composite  of  sciences  and  arts,  much 
as  medicine  and  surgery  are.  But  if  there  is  no  science  of 
agriculture  as  distinct  from  other  sciences,  the  prosecution  of 
agriculture  must  be  scientific;  and  the  fact  that  it  is  a  mosaic 
makes  it  all  the  more  difficult  to  follow,  and  enforces  the  im- 
portance of  executive  judgment  and  farm  -  practice  over  mere 
scientific  knowledge. 

22«.  The  province  of  a  text -book  of  agriculture,  in  other 
words,  is  to  deal  ( 1 )  with  the  original  production  of  agricultural 
wealth  rather  than  with  its  manufacture,  transportation  or  sale, 
for  these  latter  enterprises  are  largely  matters  of  personal  cir- 
cumstance and  individuality,  and  (2)  with  those  principles  and 
facts  which  are  common  to  all  agriculture,  or  which  may  be 
considered  to  be  fundamental. 

21b.  In  other  words,  we  must  search  for  principles,  not  for 
mere  facts  or  information :  we  shall  seek  to  ask  why  before  we 
ask  how.  Principles  apply  everywhere,  but  facts  and  rules  may 
apply  only  where  they  originate.  Agriculture  is  founded  upon 
laws;  but  there  are  teachers  who  would  have  us  believe  that  it 
is  chiefly  the  overcoming  of  mere  obstacles,  as  insects,  unpro- 
pitious  weather,  and  the  like.  There  are  great  fundamentals 
which  the  learner  must  comprehend  ;  therefore  we  shall  say 
nothing,  in  this  book,  about  the  incidentals,  as  the  kinds  of 
weeds, the  brands  of  fertilizers,  the  breeds  of  animals,  the  varie- 
ties of  flowers. 


PAKT  I 
THE     SOIL 


CHAPTER  I 

THE   CONTENTS    OF    THE   SOIL 
1.   What  the  Soil  Is 

23.  The  earth,  the  atmosphere,  and   the  sun- 
light  are    the    sources    of    all    life    and    wealth. 
Atmosphere  and  sunlight   are  practically  beyond 
the  control  of  man,  but  the  surface  of  the  land 
is  amenable  to  treatment  and  amelioration. 

24.  The  soil  is  that  part  of  the  solid  surface 
of  the  earth  in  which  plants  grow.     It  varies  in 
depth   from  less    than    an    inch    to   several  feet. 
The    uppermost    part    of    it    is   usually   darkest 
colored  and  most  fertile,    and  is  the  part  which 
is  generally  understood  as  "the  soil"  in  common 
speech,    whereas    the    under    part   is    called    the 
sub -soil.     When  speaking  of  areas,  we   use  the 
word  land  ;  but  when  speaking  of  the  particular 
agricultural   attributes  of  this  land,  we  may  use 
the  word  soil. 

(16) 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL  17 

2.  How  Soil  Is  Made 
2a.  The  inorganic  dements 

25.  The  basis  of    soil  is  fragments  of  rock. 
To  this  base  is  added  the  remains  of  plants  and 
animals  (or  organic  matter).      When  in  condition 
to   grow   plants,    it   also    contains   water.       The 
character    of    any    soil,    therefore,    is    primarily 
determined   by  the   kind  of    rock  from  which  it 
has    come,   and   the    amount   of    organic    matter 
and  water  which  it  contains. 

26.  As   the    surface   of    the    earth   cooled,   it 
became    rock -bound.      Wrinkles    and   ridges  ap- 
peared,   forming    mountains    and   valleys.      The 
tendency  is  for  the  elevations  to  be  lessened  and 
the  depressions  to  be  filled.     That  is,  the  surface 
of  the  earth  is  being  leveled.     The  chief  agency 
in  this  leveling  process  is  weathering.     The  hills 
and  mountains  are  worn  down  by  alternations  of 
temperature,  by  frost,  ice,  snow,  rain  and  wind. 
They  are  worn   away  by  the   loss  of  small   par- 
ticles :     these    particles,   when   gathered    on   the 
hillsides  or  deposited  on  lower  levels,  form  soil. 

27.  The    weathering    agencies    which    reduce 
the    mountains    operate    also     on     level    areas ; 
but    since    the    soil    then    remains   where    it    is 
formed,    and    thereby    affords    a    protection    to 
the  underlying  rock,  the  reduction  of   the  rock 


18  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

usually   proceeds  more  slowly  than   on   inclined 
surfaces. 

28.  There  are,  then,  two  sets  of  forces  con- 
cerned  in   the  original   formation  of   soils, —  the 
disintegration  or  wearing  away  of   the  rock,  and 
the  transfer  or  moving  of  the  particles  to  other 
places. 

26.    The   organic   elements   and   agents 

29.  Plants  are  important  agents  in  the  forma- 
tion of  soil.     Their  action  is  of  two  kinds  :    the 
roots  corrode  and  break  up  the  surfaces  of  rock 
and    particles    of     soil,    and     the    plant    finally 
decays  and  adds  some  of   its  tissue  to  the  soil. 

30.  In    the    disintegration    of    rock    and    the 
fining  of  soil,  the  root  acts  in  two  ways  :    it  ex- 
erts a  mechanical  force  or  pressure  as  it  grows, 
cracking  and   cleaving   the   rock  ;    and  it  has  a 
chemical    action   in   dissolving   out   certain    ma- 
terials,   and   thereby   consuming   and   weakening 
the   rock. 

31.  Animals    contribute   to  the    formation   of 
soil  by  their  excrement  and  the  decay  of  their 
carcasses.     Burrowing  and  digging  animals  also 
expose  rocks  and  soils  to  weathering,  and  con- 
tribute   to   the    transportation   of    the    particles. 
Some  animals  are  even  more  directly  concerned 
in    soil -making.     Of    these,    the    chief    are    the 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL  19 

various  kinds  of  earthworms,  one  of  which 
is  the  common  angleworm.  These  animals  eat 
earth,  which,  when  excreted,  is  more  or  less 
mixed  with  organic  matter,  and  the  mineral 
particles  are  ground  and  modified.  It  is  now 
considered  that  in  the  tenacious  soils  in  which 
these  animals  work,  the  earthworms  have  been 
very  important  agents  in  fitting  the  earth  for 
the  growing  of  plants,  and  consequently  for 
agriculture. 

32.1  While  the  basis  of  most  soils  is  dis- 
integrated rock,  there  are  some  soils  which 
are  essentially  organic  in  origin.1  These  are 
formed  by  the  accumulation  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter, often  aided  by  the  incorporation  of  animal 
remains.  In  the  tropics,  such  soils  are  often 
formed  on  shores  and  in  lagoons  by  the  exten- 
sion of  the  trunk -like  roots  of  mangroves 
and  other  trees.  In  the  network  of  roots,  leaves 
and  sea-wrack  are  caught,  and  mold  is  formed. 
Water  plants  (as  marsh  grasses  and  eel -grass) 
are  sometimes  so  abundant  on  sea  margins  as 
to  eventually  form  solid  land.  On  the  edges  of 
lakes  and  ponds,  the  accumulation  of  water-lily 
rhizomes  and  other  growths  often  affords  a  foot- 
hold for  sedges  and  other  semi -aquatic  plants  ; 
and  the  combined  growth  invades  the  lake  and 
often  fills  it.  Portions  of  this  decaying  and 
tangled  mass  are  sometimes  torn  away  by  wind 


20  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

or  wave,  and  become  floating  islands.  Such 
islands  are  often  several  acres  in  extent.  In 
high  latitudes,  where  the  summer's  growth  does 
not  decay  quickly,  one  season's  growth  is  some- 
times added  above  another  until  a  deep  organic 
soil  is  formed.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in 
the  gradual  increase  in  height  of  sphagnum 
swamps.  Peat  bogs  are  organic  lands,  and  they 
fill  the  beds  of  former  lakes  or  swamps.  Of 
course,  all  these  organic  soils  contain  mineral 
matter,  but  it  is  mostly  such  as  comes  from  the 
decay  of  the  plants  themselves.  It  was  origi- 
nally obtained  from  the  earth,  but  is  used  over 
and  over  again ;  and  each  year  a  little  new 
material  may  be  added  by  such  plants  as  reach 
into  the  hard  land  below,  and  by  that  which 
blows  into  the  area  in  dust. 

33.  Decaying  organic  matter  forms  mold  or 
humus.  The  mineral  elements  may  be  said  to 
give  "body"  to  the  soil,  but  the  humus  is  wrhat 
gives  it  "life"  or  "heart."  Humus  makes  soils 
dark- colored  and  mellow.  Humus  not  only  adds 
plant -food  to  the  soil,  but  improves  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil  and  makes  it  congenial  for 
plants.  It  augments  the  water -holding  capacity 
of  the  soil,  modifies  the  extremes  of  temperature, 
facilitates  the  entrance  of  air,  and  accelerates 
many  chemical  activities.  It  is  the  chief  agent 
in  the  formation  of  loam :  —  a  sandy  loam  is  a 


THE    CONTENTS    OP    THE    SOIL  21 

friable  soil  rich  in  vegetable  matter,  the  original 
basis  of  which  is  sand  ;  a  clay  loam  is  one  simi- 
larly ameliorated,  the  basis  of  which  is  clay. 
"Worn-out"  lands  usually  suffer  more  from 
lack  of  humus  than  from  lack  of  actual  plant- 
food,  and  this  explains  why  the  application  of 
stable -manure  is  so  efficacious. 

34.  There   are    three    general   ways    in  which 
humus    is    obtained    in    farm -practice  :      (1)    By 
means  of   the  vegetable  matter  which  is  left  on 
or  in  the  ground  after  the  crop  is  removed    (as 
roots,     stubble,    sod,     garden    refuse) ;      (2)    by 
means    of    crops   grown    and    plowed   under   for 
that  particular  purpose  (green-manuring) ;  (3)    by 
means  of  direct  applications  to  the  land  (as  com- 
post and  stable -manure).     The  deeper  and  more 
extensive    the    root -system    of     any   plant,    the 
greater,  in  general,  is  its  value  as  an  ameliorator 
of  soil,  both  because  it  itself  exerts  a  more  wide- 
spread  influence   (30),  and  because  when   it  de- 
cays it  extends  the  ameliorating  effects  of  humus 
to  greater  depths. 

35.  Aside   from   these   varied  component  ele- 
ments, fertile  soil  is  inhabited  by  countless  num- 
bers of  microscopic  organisms,  which  are  peculiar 
to    it,   and    without    which    its   various    chemical 
activities    can    not    proceed.     These   germs   con- 
tribute to  the  breaking  down  of  the  soil  particles 
and  to  the  decay  of   the  organic  materials,  and 


22  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

in  doing  so,  aid  in  the  formation  of  plant -foods. 
The  soil,  therefore,  is  not  merely  an  inert  mass, 
operated  upon  only  by  physical  and  chemical 
forces,  but  it  is  a  realm  of  intense  life  ;  and  the 
discovery  of  this  fact  has  radically  modified  our 
conception  of  the  soil  and  the  means  of  treating 
it.  Enriching  the  land  is  no  longer  the  adding 
of  mere  plant -food  :  it  is  also  making  the  soil 
congenial  to  the  multiplication  and  well-being 
of  micro-organisms. 

2c.   Transportation   of  soils 

36.  The  soil  is  never  at  rest.  The  particles 
move  upon  each  other,  through  the  action  of 
water,  heat  and  cold,  and  other  agencies.  The 
particles,  whether  of  inorganic  or  organic  origin, 
are  also  ever  changing  in  shape  and  composition. 
They  wear  away  and  crumble  under  the  action 
of  weather,  water,  organic  acids  of  the  humus, 
and  the  roots  of  plants.  No  particle  of  soil  is 
now  in  its  original  place.  These  changes  are 
most  rapid  in  tilled  lands,  because  the  soil  is 
more  exposed  to  weather  through  the  tillage 
and  the  aerating  effect  of  deep-rooted  plants 
(as  clover) ;  and  the  stirring  or  tilling  itself 
wears  the  soil  particles.  Even  stones  and  pebbles 
wear  away  (26a) ;  and  the  materials  which  they 
lose  usually  become  productive  elements  of  the 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE     SOIL  23 

soil.  Some  lands  have  very  porous  or  "rotten" 
stones,  and  these  pass  quickly  into  soil.  Stones 
are  no  doubt  a  useful  reserve  force  in  farm 
lands,  giving  up  their  fertility  very  gradually, 
and  thereby  saving  some  of  the  wastefulness  of 
careless  husbandry.  The  general  tendency,  in 
nature,  is  for  soils  to  become  finer,  more  homo- 
geneous, and  better  for  the  growth  of  plants. 

37.  But    there   are    greater   movements   than 
these.     Soil   is  often  transported  long  distances, 
chiefly  by  means  of  three  agents:  moving  water, 
ice   and   snow,  wind.     Transported  soils  are   apt 
to  be  very  unlike  the  underlying  rock  (or  origi- 
nal   surface),   and    they   are    often   very    hetero- 
geneous   or    conglomerate     in    character.      Soils 
which     remain    where    they    are    formed     (27) 
naturally    partake   of    the    nature    of    the    bed- 
rock, and  are  generally  more  homogeneous  than 
transported  soils,  as,  for  example,  the  limestone 
soils  which  overlie  great  deposits  of  lime -rock. 

38.  Moving  water  always  moves    land.     The 
beating  of  waves  wears   away  rocks   and  stones 
and  breaks  up  debris,  and  deposits  the  mass  on 
or    near    the    shore.     Streams    carry    soils    long 
distances.     The   particles   may  be  in  a  state  of 
suspension  in  the  water,  and  be  precipitated  in 
the  quieter  parts  of  the  stream   or  in  bayous  or 
lagoons,  or  they  may   be   driven  along   the   bed 
of   the  stream  by  the  force  of   the  current,  and 


24  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

be  deposited  wherever  obstructions  occur,  or  be 
discharged  on  the  delta  at  the  mouth.  The 
deposition  of  sediment  in  times  of  overflow 
adds  new  vigor  to  the  submerged  lands.  The 
historic  example  of  this  is  the  Nile  valley, 
but  all  bottom  lands  which  are  subjected  to 
periodical  overflows  exhibit  the  same  result. 
Alluvial  lands  are  formed  from  the  deposition 
of  the  sediment  of  water. 

39.  In    mountainous    regions,    snow    and    ice 
carry    away    great   quantities    of   rock   and    soil. 
The  most  powerful  transporters  of  soil  are  gla- 
ciers, or  moving  masses  of  ice.     Glaciers  loosen 
the  rock  and   then  grind    and   transport  it.     In 
the  glacial   epoch,  in  which  much  of  the  north- 
ern  part   of   the  northern   hemisphere  was   cov- 
ered   with  gigantic  ice -sheets  slowly   moving  to 
the  southward,  enormous  quantities  of   rock   and 
earth  were  transported,   and   deposited   wherever 
the   ice  melted.     In   eastern  North  America,  the 
ice -front   advanced    to   the   latitude  of  the  Ohio 
river,  and   the   boulder -strewn   fields  and   varied 
soils  to  the  northward  of    this    latitude   are  the 
legacy  which  the  epoch  left  to  the  farmer. 

40.  In     all     areas     which     are    subjected    to 
periods  of  drought,  the  wind  transports  soils  in 
the  form  of   dust,    often   in  great    amounts   and 
for  long  distances.     In  some  parts  of  the  world, 
so  much  earth  is  carried  by  violent  winds  that 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL  25 

these  winds  are  known  as  "sand-storms."  Most 
shores,  particularly  if  sandy,  are  much  modified 
by  the  action  of  wind.  But  the  wind  has  an 
influence  upon  soils  even  in  the  most  protected 
and  equable  regions.  The  atmosphere  contains 
dust,  much  of  which  is  valuable  plant -food. 
This  dust  is  transported  by  winds,  and  it  finally 
settles  or  is  carried  down  by  snow  and  rain. 
Although  the  amount  of  dust  which  is  deposited 
in  any  given  time  may  be  slight,  it  is  neverthe- 
less continuous,  and  has  an  important  effect 
upon  the  soil. 

3.   The  Resources  of  the  Soil 

41.  The  soil  affords  a  root -hold  for  plants, — 
a  place  in  which  they  can  grow.     It  also  supplies 
the  environmental  conditions  which  roots  need, — 
protection,  moisture,  air,  agreeable    temperature, 
and  other  congenial  surroundings. 

42.  The   soil  is   also   a  store -house  of    plant- 
food.     Roberts   calculates,   from  many  analyses, 
that   in    average    agricultural    lands    the    surface 
eight  inches   of    soil   on  each  acre  contains  over 
3,000   pounds  of    nitrogen,  nearly   4,000   pounds 
of    phosphoric   acid,  and  over   17,000  pounds  of 
potash.    These  three  elements  are  the  ones  which 
the  farmer  must  chiefly  consider  in  maintaining 
or  augmenting  the  productive  power  of  the  land  ; 


26 

yet  the  figures  "reveal  the  fact  that  even  the 
poorer  soils  have  an  abundance  of  plant- food 
for  several  crops,  while  the  richer  soils  in 
some  cases  have  sufficient  for  two  hundred  to 
three  hundred  crops  of  wheat  or  maize."  Yet 
these  calculations  are  made  from  only  the 
upper  eight  inches  of  soil. 

43.  Happily,    this    food    is    not    all    directly 
available   or  useful    to   plants   (being   locked   up 
in    insoluble    combinations),  else    it  would   have 
been     exhausted     by     the     first     generations     of 
farmers.     It  is    gradually  unlocked   by  weather, 
micro-organisms,  and  the  roots   of   plants  ;    and 
the    better    the    tillage,    the    more    rapid    is    its 
utilization.     Plants  differ  in  the  power  to  unlock 
or  make  use  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

44.  Nature    maintains    this    store    of    fertility 
by    returning     her    crops     to     the     soil.      Every 
tree    of    the   forest   finally  crumbles    into    earth. 
She    uses    the    materials,  then   gives    them    back 
in    a   refined  and   improved   condition  for   other 
plants  to  use.     She  repays,  and  with  interest. 

45.  Man  removes  the  crops.     He  sends  them 
to   market    in    one   form    or    another,    and    the 
materials    are    finally    lost    in    sewage    and    the 
sea.      He    sells    the    productive     power    of    his 
land  ;  yet  it  does  not  follow  that  he  impoverishes 
his  soil  in  proportion  to  the  plant -food  which  he 
sells.     Given   the    composition   of    any  soil    and 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    ROIL  2? 

of  the  crops  which  it  is  to  produce,  it  is  easy  to 
calculate  the  time  when  the  soil  will  have  lost 
its  power ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
materials  which  the  plant  removes  are  consumed, 
and  that  the  volume  of  the  soil  is  reduced  by 
that  amount.  The  result  is,  therefore,  that  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  soil  are  brought  into  requi- 
sition as  fast  as  the  upper  parts  are  consumed  ; 
and  these  depths  will  last  as  long  as  the  earth 
lasts. 

46.  Of    some    materials,    however,    the   plant 
uses  more  freely  than  of  others,  in  proportion  to 
their  abundance  in  the  soil.     Therefore  the  soil 
may  finally  lose   its   productivity,  although   it   is 
doubtful  if  it  can  ever  be  completely  exhausted 
of  plant-food. 

47.  Again,  the  profit  in  agriculture  often  lies 
in    making    the    soil    produce    more    abundantly 
than    it  is   of   itself   able  to   do.     That  is,   even 
after    tillage    and    every   other   care    have   forced 
the   soil   to   respond   to   its    full    ability,    it    may 
pay  the  farmer  to  buy  plant -food  in  bags  in  the 
same  way   that   it   may   pay  him   to   buy  ground 
feed  when   fattening  sheep.     Whether    it    is    ad- 
visable   to    buy  this    plant- food    is    a    matter   of 
business    judgment    which     every    farmer     must 
determine    for   himself,   after   having   considered 
the  three    fundamental    factors   in   the   problem : 
the   cost    of   the    plant- food    (or    fertilizer),    the 


28  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

probable  effect  of  this  extra  food  upon  the  crop, 
and  the  commercial  value  of  the  extra  crop.  In 
general,  it  should  be  considered  that  in  mixed 
husbandry  the  fertility  of  the  land  must  be 
maintained  by  means  of  farm -practice  (that  is, 
by  good  farming),  and  that  plant-food  should 
be  bought  only  for  the  purpose  of  producing  the 
extra  product. 

48.  We  are  now  able  to  comprehend  that 
the  soil  is  a  compound  of  numberless  inorganic 
and  organic  materials,  a  realm  of  complex 
physical  and  chemical  forces,  and  the  scene  of 
an  intricate  round  of  life.  We  must  no  longer 
think  of  it  as  mere  dirt.  Moreover,  we  are  only 
beginning  to  understand  it;  and  if  the  very  soil 
is  unknown  to  us,  how  complicated  must  be  the 
great  structure  of  agriculture  which  is  reared 
upon  it ! 

SUGGESTIONS    ON   CHAPTER   I 

25a.  The  word  organic  refers  to  animals  and  plants  or  their 
products  and  remains  ;  that  is,  to  things  which  live  and  have 
organs.  Organic  compounds,  in  chemistry,  are  those  which 
have  been  built  up  or  produced  by  the  action  of  a  plant  or 
animal.  Modern  usage,  however,  defines  organic  compounds  as 
those  which  contain  carbon.  Starch,  sugar,  woody  fiber,  are 
examples. 

256.  Inorganic  compounds  are  such  as  are  not  produced  by 
living  organisms,  as  all  the  mineral  compounds.  They  are 
found  in  the  earth  and  air.  Salt,  potash,  iron  and  gold, 
lime,  are  examples. 


THE    CONTENTS    OP    THE    SOIL 


29 


25c.  The  organic  matter  in  soils — the  plant  and  animal 
remains — is  removed  by  burning.  Let  the  pupil  secure  a  cupful 
of  wet  soil  and  carefully  weigh  it  on  delicate  scales.  Then  let 
it  dry  in  the  sun,  and  weigh  again  ;  the  difference  in  weight  is 

T 


Fig.  1.     Showing  the  wearing  away  of  mountain  peaks  anil  the  formation  of 
soil  at  the  base. 

due  to  the  loss  or  evaporation  of  water.  Now  place  it  in  a 
moderately  warm  oven  or  on  a  stove,  and  after  a  few  minutes 
weigh  again  ;  more  of  the  water  will  now  have  passed  off.  Now 
thoroughly  burn  or  bake  it,  and  weigh  ;  the  loss  is  now  mostly 
due  to  the  burning  of  the  organic  matter,  and  part  of  this 
matter  has  passed  off  as  gas.  If  there  is  no  perceptible  loss 
from  the  burning,  it  is  evidence  that  the  sample  contained  little 
organic  matter.  Note  the  difference  in  results  between  clay  and 
muck.  The  pupil  may  also  be  interested  to  try  to  grow  plants 
in  the  baked  soil. 


30  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

26a.  The  wearing  away  of  rock  by  the  weather  may  be  ob- 
served wherever  stones  are  exposed.  Even  granite  and  marble 
monuments  lose  their  polish  and  luster  in  a  few  years.  The 
*harp  and  angular  projections  disappear  from  the  ledges  and 
broken  stones  of  railway  cuts  and  quarries.  The  pupil  should 
look  for  the  wear  on  any  rocks  with  which  he  may  be  familiar. 
All  stones  tend  to  grow  smaller.  On  a  large  scale,  the  wasting 
of  rocks  may  be  seen  in  the  debris  at  the  base  of  precipices  and 
mountain  peaks  (Fig.  1),  or  wherever  steep  walls  of  rock  are 
exposed.  The  palisades  of  the  Hudson,  and  other  precipitous 
river  and  lake  bluffs,  show  this  action  well.  Mountains  tend  to 
become  rounded  in  the  long  processes  of  time,  although  some 
rocks  are  of  such  structure  that  they  hold  their  pointed  shape 
until  worn  almost  completely  away.  In  Geikie's  "Geological 
Sketches,"  Essay  No.  8,  the  reader  will  find  an  interesting 
account  of  weathering  as  illustrated  by  the  decay  of  tombstones. 

26b.  The  extent  of  this  weathering  and  denuding  process  in 
the  formation  of  soils  may  be  graphically  illustrated  by  the  pres- 
ent conformation  of  the  Alps  and  adjacent  parts  of  Europe. 
Lubbock  writes  that  "much  of  the  deposits  which  occupy  the 
valleys  of  the  Rhine,  Po,  Rhone,  Reuss,  Inn,  and  Danube — the 
alluvium  which  forms  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  of  Germany,  of 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  of  southeast  France — consists  of  materials 
washed  down  from  the  Swiss  mountains."  The  amount  of  mate- 
rial which  has  been  removed  from  the  Alps  is  probably  "almost 
as  great  as  that  which  still  remains."  So  great  has  been  the 
denudation  that  in  certain  cases  "what  is  now  the  top  of  the 
mountain  was  once  the  bottom  of  a  valley."  The  Matterhoru,  the 
boldest  and  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Alps,  "is  obviously  a  rem- 
nant of  an  ancient  ridge,"  and  the  "present  configuration  of  the 
surface  [of  Switzerland]  is  indeed  mainly  the  result  of  denuda- 
tion. *  ' '  It  is  certain  that  not  a  fragment  of  the  original  sur- 
face is  still  in  existence,  though  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  the 
mountains  were  at  any  time  so  much  higher,  as  elevation  and 
denudation  went  on  together."  There  is  even  evidence  to  show 
that  an  earlier  range  of  mountains  occupied  the  site  of  the 
present  Alps,  and  that  these  old  mountains  were  removed  or 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL 


31 


worn  away  by  denudation. — See   Sir   John   Lubbock,   "Scenery   of 
Switzerland,"  Chaps.  Hi.  and  iv. 

29a.  Even  hard  surfaces  of  rock  often  support  lichens, 
mosses,  and  other  humble  plants.  "The  plant  is  co-partner 
with  the  weather  in  the  building  of  the  primal  soils.  The  lichen 
spreads  its  thin  substance  over  the  rock,  sending  its  fibers  into 
the  crevices  and  filling  the  chinks, 
as  they  enlarge,  with  the  decay 
of  its  own  structure  ;  and  finally 
the  rock  is  fit  for  the  moss  or 
fern  or  creeping  vine,  each  new- 
comer leaving  its  impress  by  which 
some  later  newcomer  may  profit. 
Finally  the  rock  is  disintegrated 
and  comminuted,  and  is  ready  to 
he  still  further  elaborated  by  corn 
and  ragweed.  Nature  intends  to 
leave  no  vacant  or  bare  places. 
She  providently  covers  the  rail- 
way embankment  with  quack -grass 
or  willows,  and  she  scatters  daisies 
in  the  old  meadows  where  the  land 
has  grown  sick  and  tired  of  grass." 
— Principles  of  Fruit -Growing,  176. 

30o.  It  is  interesting  to  consider  the  general  reasons  for  the 
evolution  of  the  root.  Plants  were  at  first  aquatic,  and  probably 
absorbed  food  from  the  water  on  all  their  surfaces.  They  may 
not  have  been  attached  to  the  earth.  As  they  were  driven  into 
a  more  or  less  terrestrial  life  by  the  receding  of  the  waters  and 
as  a  result  of  the  struggle  for  existence,  they  developed  parts 
which  penetrated  the  earth.  These  parts  were  probably  only 
hold-fasts  at  first,  as  the  roots  of  many  seaweeds  are  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  But  as  it  became  less  and  less  possible  for  the  general 
surface  of  the  plant  to  absorb  food,  the  hold-fast  gradually  be- 
came a  food -gathering  or  feeding  member.— See  Survival  of  the 
Unlike,  pp.  41-4.1. 

30&.    If  the  pupil  has  access  to  ledges  of  rock  on  which  trees 


Fig.  2.    The  halves  of  a  rock  forced 
apart  by  the  growth  of  a  tree. 


32 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 


are  growing,  he  will  readily  be  able  to  satisfy  himself  that  roots 
force  open  cracks  and  thereby  split  and  sever  the  stone.  Fig.  2 
is  an  example,  showing  how  a  black  cherry  tree,  gaining  a 
foothold  in  a  crevice,  has  gradually  forced  the  parts  of  the  rock 


Fig.  3.     Lichens  have  obtained  a  foothold. 

asunder.  This  particular  example  is  the  "half-way  stone"  be- 
tween the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  and  the  city  of  Lansing. 
Fig.  3  shows  a  stone  upon  which  lichens  have  obtained  a  foot- 
hold. Any  person  who  has  worked  much  in  a  garden  will  have 
seen  how  roots  often  surround  a  bone,  taking  their  food  from  its 
surface  and  insinuating  themselves  into  the  cracks.  Roots  will 
corrode  or  eat  out  the  surface  of  marble.  The  grinding  up  of  stones 
is  well  illustrated  on  any  lake  shore,  where  the  pebbles  represent 
what  is  left  at  the  present  time  of  the  stones  and  fragments.  The 
rolling  stones  in  brooks  represent  a  similar  action. 

30c.  By  chemical  action  is  meant  the  change  from  which  results 
a  new  chemical  combination.  It  produces  a  rearrangement  of 
molecules.  For  example,  the  change  which  takes  place  when,  by 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL 


33 


uniting  lime  and  sulfuric  acid,  sulfate  of  lime  or  gypsum  is  pro- 
duced, is  chemical  action. 

31a.  Knowledge  of  the  work  of  the  earthworm  in  building 
soils  dates  practically  from  the  issue  of  Darwin's  remarkable 
book,  '-The  Formation  of  Vegetable  Mould,  through  the  Action  of 
Worms,"  which  the  reader  should  consult  for  particulars.  The 
subject  is  also  considered  briefly  in  King's  "Soil,"  Chap,  i.,  which 
also  discusses  the  general  means  of  soil-building. 

32a.  As  an  example  of  the  formation  of  organic  soils  in  the 
tropics,  read  accounts  of  the  mangrove.  Its  mode  of  propagation 


Fig.  4.    A  delta  in  an  orchard. 


is  explained,  with  illustrations,  in  Bailey's  "Lessons  with  Plants," 
pp.  371-374  ;  the  tree  is  also  described  in  Chap.  v.  of  Gaye's 
"Great  World's  Farm."  As  an  example  of  a  formation  of  a  peat 
bog  by  the  growth  of  sphagnum,  read  Ganong  "On  Raised  Peat- 
bogs in  New  Brunswick,"  Botanical  Gazette,  pp.  123-126,  May, 
1891.  Sphagnum  is  moss  which  grows  in  cold  bogs.  Nurserymen 
and  florists  use  it  in  the  packing  of  plants. 


34 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 


33a.  When  spelled  humus,  the  word  is  a  noun;  when  spelled 
humous,  it  is  an  adjective,  as  "humous  soils." 

34a.  Compost  is  decayed  or  decaying  organic  matter  which  it 
is  intended  shall  be  applied  to  the  land.  It  is  usually  obtained 
by  placing  leaves,  sod,  manure  or  litte?  in  a  low  flat-topped  (so 
that  it  will  catch  the  rain)  pile,  and  "turning  it,"  or  forking  it 


Fig.  5.    A  compost  pile. 


over,  every  few  weeks,  to  prevent  heating  and  to  hasten  uniform 
decomposition  (Fig.  5).  When  the  mass  has  passed  into  the 
condition  of  humus  or  mold  (or  become  fine  and  soil-like),  it  is 
applied  to  the  land.  Composting  is  a  most  useful  means  of 
utilizing  leaves,  garden  refuse,  and  other  materials  which  are 
too  coarse  or  "raw"  to  be  applied  directly  to  the  land. 

35a.  "The  term  micro-organism  is  a  general  one,  which 
includes  any  very  minute,  microscopic  form  of  life.  More  strictly 
speaking,  the  word  has  come  to  apply  especially  to  certain  forms 
of  plant  life  which  are  too  minute  to  be  seen  individually  by  the 
naked  eye,  and  which  hence  require  for  their  study  the  higher 
powers  of  the  microscope." — Fred'k  D.  Chester,  Bull,  xl.,  Del. 


THE     CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL  35 

Exp.  Sta.  The  terms  germ,  microbe,  bacterium  (plural  bacteria), 
are  popularly  used  in  the  same  sense  as  micro-organism.  These 
beings  are  usually  unicellular  (each  one  consisting  of  only  a 
single  cell).  They  are  generally  classified  with  plants.  The  role 
of  micro-organisms  in  rendering  soil  elements  available  to  plants 
is  very  complex  and  not  yet  well  understood.  A  general  dis- 
cussion of  these  organisms  will  be  found  in  Lipman's  "  Bacteria 
in  Relation  to  Country  Life."  The  relation  to  germs  in  nitrification 
is  briefly  discussed  in  King's  "Soil,"  pp.  125-134,  and  Roberts' 
"Fertility,"  244-248.  Fig.  6  illustrates  one  of  the 
common  bacteria,  very  much  magnified.  This  ^ 
species  (Bacillus  ubiquitus)  is  abundant  in  water,  ** 
air,  and  decaying  substances.  < 


38a.  Observe  the  deposits  of  sand  in  the  quiet 
side  (usually  the  concave  side)  of  streams,  and  Fig.  6.  Micro-or- 
also  the  delta  where  a  rapid  rill  flows  into  a  slow  Kanisms,  greatly 
one.  When  the  rill  flows  into  a  rapid  stream,  magni 
the  larger  current  carries  away  the  deposit  so  that  it  may  not  be 
seen.  Recall  how  sand-bare  form  again  and  again  in  lakes,  and 
how  streams  must  be  frequently  dredged  to  keep  the  channel 
open.  The  slower  the  stream  the  more  quickly  does  it  drop  its 
sediment  ;  and  the  more  winding,  also,  is  its  course,  lying  in  the 
bed  of  its  own  deposits.  (See  Fig.  4.) 

386.  Dip  a  glass  of  water  from  a  roily  stream,  and  observe 
the  earth  which  settles  to  the  bottom. 

39a.  Glaciers  are  still  abundant  in  alpine  and  arctic  regions. 
It  was  from  the  study  of  glaciers  in  the  Alps  that  Agassiz  con- 
ceived the  hypothesis  that  large  parts  of  the  earth  had  once 
been  subjected  to  glacial  action.  A  good  popular  discussion  of 
glaciers  and  their  action  may  be  found  in  Chap.  xvii.  of  Tarr's 
"Elementary  Physical  Geography."  Delightful  readings  may  also 
be  made  from  Agassiz's  "Geological  Sketches." 

40a.  Let  the  pupil  catch  a  few  rain  drops  on  a  perfectly  clean 
and  clear  pane  of  glass,  and  observe  if  any  sediment  is  left  when 
the  drops  have  evaporated.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  amount 
of  dust  brought  down  after  a  "  dry  spell  "  and  after  a  period  of 
rainy  weather,  or  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  shower  ?  The 


36  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

pupil  may  now  be  able  to  explain  why  the  windows  get  dirty  after 
a  rain  ;  and  he  will  be  interested  in  the  streaks  on  the  cornices 
of  buildings  and  on  exposed  statuary.  He  may  have  heard  that 
even  sailing  ships  get  dusty  when  at  sea. 

42a.  See  Eoberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  p.  16.  Read  all 
of  Chapter  i.  The  food  which  is  not  available,  or  not  in  condi- 
tion to  be  used  by  the  plant,  but  which  may  become  available 
through  good  tillage  or  otherwise,  is  called  potential  plant-food. 

43a.  The  soil  is  not  a  simple  reservoir  of  plant- food  in  the 
condition  of  salt  or  sugar,  ready  to  be  dissolved  in  water  and 
immediately  taken  up  by  roots.  The  soil  is  plant -food  ;  but 
most  of  it  must  be  changed  in  composition  before  it  is  available 
to  plants  ;  and  the  elements  are  not  present  in  the  proportions 
which  plants  require,  so  that  much  of  the  soil  is  in  excess  of  the 
needs  of  plants  and  can  never  be  used  as  food. 

48a.  For  supplementary  reading  on  the  formation  of  soils, 
Chapter  i.  of  King's  "Soil"  should  be  consulted.  Most  text-books 
of  geology  also  treat  the  subject  to  some  extent.  Shaler's  article 
on  soil,  in  12th  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey 
(pp.  319-345),  is  excellent.  A  discussion  of  weathering  may  be 
found  in  Chapter  vi.  of  Tarr's  "Elementary  Geology;"  and  other 
references  are  contaimed  in  Chapters  xiii.and  xxi.of  his  "Elemen- 
tary Physical  Geography."  Stockbridge's  "Rocks  and  Soils" 
(1895)  has  special  reference  to  agriculture.  A  readable  account 
of  the  formation  of  soil  may  be  found  in  Chapters  iii.,  iv.  and  v., 
Gaye's  "Great  Word's  Farm."  Merrill's  "Rocks,  Rock- Weather- 
ing and  Soils"  (1897)  is  a  full  scientific  discussion  of  the  subject. 
Consult  Hilgard's  "Soils,"  and  the  text  by  Lyon  and  Fippin;  also 
the  part  on  soils  in  Vol.  I,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  TEXTURE  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SOIL 

1.     What  Is   Meant   by    Texture 

49.  We  have  seen  that  the  offices  of  the  soil 
are  of   two  general    kinds, — it  affords  a  physical 
medium  in  which  the  plant  can  grow  (41),  and 
it    supplies    materials    that    the    plant    uses    in 
the   building  of   its    tissues   (42).     It   cannot    be 
said  that  one  of  these  offices  is   more  important 
than    the    other,   since    both    are    essential;     but 
attention  has  been  so   long  fixed  upon  the  mere 
content    of   soils  that  it  is   important  to  empha- 
size the  physical   attributes.     Crops  cannot  grow 
on    a    rock,   no    matter  how  much  plant-food   it 
may   contain.      The    passing   of    rock    into    soil 
is   a  matter  of  change   in   texture  and   structure 
more   than  in  plant-food.    Texture   refers  to  the 
size  of    the   particles  ;    structure  to   the   arrange- 
ment of  the  particles. 

50.  The   physical    state   of    the  soil    may  be 
spoken  of  as  its  structure,  much  as  we  speak  of 
the  structure   of  a  house  of  brick  or  stone.    The 
common  adjectives  that  are  applied  to  the  condi- 
tion  of   agricultural   soils   are  descriptions  of  its 

(37) 


241.189 


38  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 

structure:  as,  mellow,  hard,  loose,  compact,  open, 
porous,  shallow,  deep,  leachy,  retentive,  lumpy, 
cloddy,  fine  in  good  tilth. 

51.  Texture   and   structure   must  not   be  con- 
founded with  the  physical  forces  or  operations  in 
the  soil,  as  the  fluctuations  of  temperature,  move- 
ments of  water,  circulation  of  air.    They  refer  to 
condition  or  state,  and  are  passive,  not  to  forces 
or  movements,  which   are  active;    but  it  is  upon 
this  passive  condition  that  the  operation  of  both 
physical  and  chemical  forces  chiefly  depends. 

2.    Wliy  Good  Texture  and  Structure  are  Important 

52.  A  finely  divided,   mellow,   friable   soil    is 
more  productive  than  a  hard  and   lumpy  one  of 
the    same    chemical     composition,     because:      It 
holds    and    retains    more    moisture;     holds    more 
air;    promotes   nitrification;    hastens   the  decom- 
position of  the  mineral  elements;  has  less  varia- 
ble   extremes    of    temperature;    allows    a    better 
root-hold  to  the  plant;    presents  greater  surface 
to  the  roots.     In  all  these  ways,  and  others,  the 
mellowness    of   the    soil    renders    the   plant-food 
more    available,    and    affords    a    congenial    and 
comfortable  place  in  which  the  plant  may  grow. 

53.  Good  structure  (as  understood  by  the  far- 
mer) not  only  facilitates  and  hastens   the  physi- 
cal  and   chemical   activities,  but  it   also  presents 


THE    TEXTURE    OF    THE    SOIL  39 

a  greater  feeding -surf  ace  to  roots,  because  the 
particles  of  earth  are  very  small  (52).  Boots 
feed  on  the  surfaces  of  hard  particles  of  earth, 
and  the  feeding -area  is  therefore  increased  in 
proportion  to  the  increase  in  the  surface  area 
of  the  particles.  Dividing  a  cube  into  two 
equal  parts  increases  its  surface  area  by  one- 
third.  (Dividing  a  cube  adds  two  sides  or 
surfaces.)  Fining  the  soil  may  therefore  be 
equivalent  to  fertilizing  it,  so  far  as  plant - 
growth  is  concerned. 

3.    How  Good  Structure  is  Secured 

54.  The  size  of   the  soil  particles,  determin- 
ing the  texture  of  the  soil,  cannot  be  modified  to 
any  appreciable  extent  by  ordinary  farm  practices. 
Tillage   has   little   effect  in  changing  the   size  of 
the  ultimate  particles. 

55.  The  arrangement  of   the  particles,  which 
determines  the  structure,  can  be  greatly  changed 
by  farm  practice.    If  the  structure  is  lumpy  and 
open,  the  soil   needs  pulverization;    if  it  is  com- 
pact  and    hard,    it    needs    loosening   up.     Very 
loose  and   leachy  soils    are   usually   improved   if 
the   particles,  particularly  in  the  under  soil,  are 
brought  together  and  compacted. 

56.  The  size  of  the  granules  (or  aggregations 
of  particles)  of  soils  is  modified  by  three  general 


40  PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

means:  (a)  by  apply  mechanical  force,  as  in  all 
the  operations  of  tilling;  (b)  by  setting  at  work 
various  physical  forces,  as  weathering  (fall-plow- 
ing is  a  typical  example),  and  the  results  follow- 
ing under-draining;  (c)  by  applying  some  ma- 
terial that  acts  chemically  on  the  particles.  (The 
first  caption,  a,  is  illustrated  in  paragraphs  26, 
26a,  26&,  27,  28;  and  it  is  further  explained  in 
Chapter  iv.) 

57.  (b)  Under-drainage  has  two  general  uses, 
—it    removes    superfluous    water,   and    improves 

the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  The  latter 
use  is  often  the  more  important.  The  improve- 
ment of  the  texture  is  the  result,  chiefly,  of 
preventing  water-soaking  and  of  admitting  air. 
Under- drained  soils  become  "deeper."  The  water- 
table  is  lowered,  since  the  depth  at  which  water 
stands  tends  to  approach  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  depth  of  the  drains  and  thereby  the  plant 
roots  are  enabled  to  penetrate  more  deeply. 

58.  (c)   Some   substances    have   the   power  to 
break  down  or  to  pulverize  hard  soils,  or  to  bind 
together   loose   ones,  or  otherwise  to  modify  the 
structure.      Such    materials — which    are    applied 
for   their   remote  or  secondary  chemical  effects — 
are    called    amendments.      Lime   is   a  typical  ex- 
ample.   Quick-lime  is  known  to  make  clay  lands 
mellow,   and    it    is    supposed    to  cement  or   bind 
together  the  particles  of  sands  or  gravels.     Most 


THE     TEXTURE     OF     THE     SOIL  41 

chemical  fertilizers  are  both  amendments  and 
direct  fertilizers,  since  they  modify  the  structure 
of  the  soil  as  well  as  add  plant- food  to  it. 

59.  The    extraneous    or    supplementary    ma- 
terials (54)  which   directly  modify  the   structure 
of     soils     are     those     that     make     humus    (33), 
as    green-manures,  farm-manures,  and   the    like. 
Stable-manure  is  usually  more  important  in   im- 
proving soil   structure   than  in  directly  supplying 
plant-food. 

4.    Structure  and  Manures 

60.  We     have     now    seen    that     the    farmer 
should  give  attention  to  the  structure  of  his  soil 
before  he  worries   about  its  richness.     The   con- 
ditions   must   first    be    made   fit    or   comfortable 
tor   the   growing   of    plants:     then    the    stimulus 
of     special    or    high    feeding    may    be    applied. 
But   manures    and  fertilizers   may  aid   in   secur- 
ing  this   good   structure   at   the   same  time   that 
they     add     plant-food.      Yet    fertilizer,    however 
rich,   may    be    applied    to    soils    wholly   without 
avail;     and     the     best    results    from    condensed 
or    chemical    fertilizers    are   usually    secured   on 
soils    that   are    in    the    best   tilth.    That  is,  it   is 
almost    useless    to    apply   commercial    fertilizers 
to  lands   that  are    not  in    proper   physical    con- 
dition for  the  best  growth  of  crops. 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


SUGGESTIONS    ON    CHAPTER   II 

49a.  The  following  extracts  from  Bulletin  119  of  the  Cor- 
nell Experiment  Station  illustrate  the  subject  under  discussion: 
"The  other  day,  I  secured  one  sample  of  soil  from  a  very  hard 
clay  knoll  upon  which  beans  had  been  planted,  but  in  which 
they  were  almost  unable  to  germinate ;  another  sample  from  a 


Fig.  7.     Examples  of  poor  and  good  texture. 

contiguous  soil,  in  which  beans  were  growing  luxuriantly;  and, 
as  a  third  sample,  I  chipped  a  piece  of  rock  off  my  house,  which 
is  built  of  stone  of  the  neighborhood.  All  of  these  samples  were 
taken  to  the  chemist  for  analysis.  The  samples  of  soil  which 
were  actually  taken  to  the  chemist  are  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The 
rock  (sample  III),  was  hard  native  stone." 

The  figures  give  the  percentages  of  some  of  the  leading  con- 
stituents in  the  three  materials. 

Phosphoric  Organic 

Moisture      Nitroaen         acid       Potash  Lime  matter 

I.  Unproductive  clay. ..    13.25                .08                 .20           1.1  .41  3.19 

II.  Good  bean  land 15.95                .11                 .17              .75  .61  5.45 

III.     Rock .08           2.12  2.55        

"In  other  words,  the  chemist  says  that  the  poorer  soil — the 
one  upon  which  I  cannot  grow  beans — is  the  richer  in  mineral 


THE    TEXTURE    OP    THE    SOIL  43 

plant-food,  and  that  the  rock  contains  a  most  abundant  supply 
of  potash  and  about  half  as  much  phosphoric  acid  as  the  good 
bean  soil. 

"All  this,  after  all,  is  not  surprising,  when  we  come  to  think 
of  it.  Every  good  farmer  knows  that  a  hard  and  lumpy  soil 
will  not  grow  good  crops,  no  matter  how  much  plant-food  it 
may  contain.  A  clay  soil  which  has  been  producing  good  crops 
for  any  number  of  years  may  be  so  seriously  injured  by  one 
injudicious  plowing  in  a  wet  time  as  to  ruin  it  for  the  grow- 
ing of  crops  for  two  or  three  years.  The  injury  lies  in  the 
modification  of  its  physical  structure,  not  in  the  lessening  of  its 
plant-food.  A  sandy  soil  may  also  be  seriously  impaired  for 
the  growing  of  any  crop  if  the  humus,  or  decaying  organic 
matter,  'is  allowed  to  burn  out  of  it.  It  then  becomes  leachy, 
it  quickly  loses  its  moisture,  and  it  becomes  excessively  hot 
in  bright  sunny  weather.  Similar  remarks  may  be  applied  to 
all  soils.  That  is,  the  terture  and  structure  or  physical  condition  of 
the  antl  is  nearly  always  more  important  than  its  mere  richness  in 
plant- food. 

"  The  first  step  in  the  enrichment  of  unproductive  laud  is 
to  improve  its  physical  condition  by  means  of  careful  and 
thorough  tillage,  by  the  addition  of  humus,  and,  perhaps,  by 
under-drainage.  It  must  first  be  put  in  stu-h  condition  that  plants 
••an  grow  in  it.  After  that,  the  addition  of  chemical  fertilizers 
may  pay  by  giving  additional  or  redundant  growth." 

53a.  Read  Chapter  ii.  in  King's  "Soil."  The  following  is 
quoted  from  that  work,  p.  72:  "Suppose  we  take  a  marble 
exactly  one  inch  in  diameter.  It  will  just  slip  inside  a  cube 
one  inch  on  a  side,  and  will  hold  a  film  of  water  3.1416  square 
inches  in  area.  But  reduce  the  diameters  of  the  marbles  to  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch,  and  at  least  1,000  of  them  will  be  required  to 
fill  the  cubic  inch,  and  their  aggregate  surface  area  will  be 
31.41G  square  inches.  If,  however,  the  diameters  of  these  spheres 
be  reduced  to  one-hundredth  of  an  inch,  1,000,000  of  them 
will  be  required  to  make  a  cubic  inch,  and  their  total  surface 
area  will  then  be  314.16  square  inches.  Suppose,  again,  the  soil 
particles  to  have  a  diameter  of  one-thousandth  of  an  inch.  It 


44  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

will  then  require  1,000,000,000  of  them  to  completely  fill  the 
cubic  inch,  while  their  aggregate  surface  area  must  measure 
3141.59  square  inches." 

53fc.  Another  illustration  may  be  taken  ("  Texture  of  Soil 
and  Conservation  of  Moisture,"  being  a  first  lesson  in  the  Cornell 
farmer's  reading  course):  "Let  us  suppose  the  soil  in  one  of 
your  plowed  fields  is  in  little  lumps  of  the  uniform  size  of  inch 
cubes — that  is,  one  square  inch  on  each  side  of  the  cube.  How 
many  square  inches  of  surface  has  that  cube  exposed  to  root 
contact  and  moisture  film  ?  Now  imagine  that  one  of  these  inch 
cubes  is  broken  up  into  smaller  cubes  measuring  one -eighth  of 
an  inch, — how  many  square  inches  of  surface  will  you  now  have 
exposed  to  root  contact  and  film  moisture  ?  Now  reflect  what 
you  have  done  in  breaking  up  the  inch  cube  of  earth.  The 
amount  of  earth  has  not  been  increased  one  atom  ;  yet,  by  fining 
it,  you  have  increased  just  eight  times  the  root  pasturage  and 
surface  for  water  film.  The  practical  point  of  this  lesson  is  that 
by  superior  tillage  you  can  expand  one  acre  into  eight,  or  by 
neglectful  management  eight  acres  can  be  reduced  to  one.  It 
also  demonstrates  why  a  skillful  farmer  can  produce  as  much 
from  fifty  acres  as  a  careless  one  can  from  four  hundred,  and 
also  confirms  the  assertion  that  success  in  modern  agriculture 
depends  more  on  the  size  of  the  farmer  than  upon  the  size  of 
the  farm." 

53c.  This  nning  or  dividing  of  the  soil,  therefore,  increases 
the  feeding  area  for  roots  ;  or,  as  Jethro  Tull  said,  it  extends 
the  "root  pasturage."  "The  value  of  simple  tillage  or  fining  of 
the  land  as  a  means  of  increasing  its  productivity  was  first  clearly 
set  forth  in  1733  by  Jethro  Tull,  in  his  'New  Horse  Hoeing  Hus- 
bandry.' The  premises  upon  which  Tull  founded  his  system  are 
erroneous.  He  supposed  that  plant  roots  actually  take  in  or  ab- 
sorb the  fine  particles  of  the  earth,  and,  therefore,  the  finer  and 
more  numerous  these  particles  the  more  luxuriantly  the  plant 
will  grow.  His  system  of  tillage,  however,  was  correct,  and  his 
experiments  and  writings  have  had  a  most  profound  influence. 
If  only  one  book  of  all  the  thousands  which  have  been  written  on 
agriculture  and  rural  affairs  were  to  be  preserved  to  future  gen- 


THE    TEXTURE     OF    THE     SOIL 


45 


erations,  I  should  want  that  honor  conferred  upon  Tull's  'Horse 
Hoeing  Husbandry.'  It  marked  the  beginning  of  the  modern 
application  of  scientific  methods  to  agriculture,  and  promulgated 
a  system  of  treatment  of  the  land  which,  in  its  essential  princi- 
ples, is  now  accepted  by  every  good  farmer,  and  the  appreciation 
of  which  must  increase  to  the  end  of  time." — Bailey,  Bull.  119, 
Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Tull  died  in  1740. 

57a.  "  The  actual  contour  of  the  water-table  in  an  under- 
drained  field,  where  the  lines  of  tile  are  placed  at  distances  of 
33  feet  and  4  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8,  which  gives  the  contours  as  they  existed  forty-eight  hours 


Fig.  8.    Showing  the  actual  contour  of  the  water-table  in  a  tile-drained  field. 


after  a  rainfall  of  .87  inches.  In  this  case  the  height  of  the 
water  midway  between  the  lines  of  tile  varied  from  4  inches  to 
12  inches  above  the  tops  of  the  tile." — King,  The  Soil,  p.  259. 

58«.  Read  Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  pp.  303-312,  on 
the  physical  effects  of  liming  land  ;  also  "The  Soil,"  p.  30,  and 
Wheeler's  "Liming  of  Soils,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.'  77,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agric.  The  effects  of  lime  in  flocculating  or  mellowing 
clay  may  be  observed  by  working  up  a  ball  of  stiff  clay  with 
common  water  and  a  similar  ball  with  lime  water  ;  the  former 
will  become  hard  on  drying,  but  the  latter  will  readily  fall  to 
pieces.  Lime  water  may  be  made  by  shaking  up  a  lump  of  lime 
in  a  bottle  of  water. 

60a.  One  of  the  most  forcible  illustrations  of  the  value  of 
fine  texture  of  soil  is  afforded  by  the  result  which  the  florist 


46  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

obtains  in  pots.  He  mixes  and  sifts  his  soils  so  that  it  is  all 
amenable  to  root  action,  and  he  is  able  to  raise  a  larger  plant  from 
a  handful  of  soil  than  the  general  farmer  grows  from  a  half 
bushel.  See  Fig.  9. 


Fig.  9.    Showing  the  possibilities  of  a  potful  of  soil. 


CHAPTER  HI 
THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL 

L.  A.  CLINTON 

1.   Why  Moisture  Is  Important 

61.  However  much,  plant -food  there  may  bs 
in    the    soil,    plants    cannot    grow    without    the 
presence  of   water.     Water   is  needed  for   three 
purposes:    to  dissolve  the  plant-food  and  thereby 
enable  it  to  enter  the  plant;  to  contribute  to  the 
building  of  plant  tissue  and  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  life  of  the  plant;  and  to  regulate  temperature. 

62.  A  consideration  of   the  amount  of    water 
required    by  plants  in    their  growth    shows  why 
supplying  plant- food  alone  does  not  insure  the 
success  of  the  crop.     The  amount  of  water  used 
by  some  of  the  common  crops  in  their  develop- 
ment to  maturity  is  approximately  as  follows  : 

Corn 50  bus.  per  acre  requires  1,500,000  Ibs.  of  water. 

Potatoes  ...  200  bus.         "  "         1,268,000  Ibs.         " 

Oats 29  bus.         "  "         1,192,000  Ibs.         " 

63.  The  failure  of   crops  is   more  frequently 
due  to  improper  control  of  moisture  than  to  any 

(47) 


48  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

other  one  cause.  In  certain  sections  of  the  coun- 
try irrigation  is  successfully  employed;  but 
most  farmers  must  depend  on  the  rainfall  as  the 
chief  source  for  the  supply  of  moisture. 

2.  How  Water  Is  Held  in  the  Soil 

64.  The  water  in  the  soil   may  be  in  one  of 
three    forms, — free,     capillary,     or     hygroscopic 
water. 

65.  The  free  water  "of^  the  soil  is  that  which 
flows  under  the  influence  of   gravity.     It  is  this 
water  which  is  removed  in  part  by  drains,  and 
which    is    the    source   of    supply   for   wells    and 
springs.     It  is  not  utilized  directly  by  cultivated 
plants,    but    it     is     valuable    when    removed     a 
proper    distance    from    the    surface,   because    it 
serves  as  a  reservoir  from  which   moisture  may 
be  drawn  by  capillary  action. 

66.  Capillary  water  is  that  which  is  held  by 
adhesion  to  the   soil   particles,    or  in    the  inter- 
stices  or  openings   between  the  particles.     It  is 
not    controlled    or     influenced     by    gravity,    but 
passes    from    one    part    of    the    soil   to    another, 
tending  to    keep   the    soil   in   equilibrium  (or  in 
uniform    condition)    so   far    as    its    moisture    is 
concerned.      The    capillary   water    is    the   direct 
supply  for  plants,  and   it   is   this  which  should 
be  most  carefully  provided  for  and  saved. 


THE    MOISTURE     IN    THE    SOIL  49 

67.  Hygroscopic  water  is  that  which  is   held 
firmly   as    a   film    surrounding   each    particle    of 
soil.     It  does  not   move  under   the  influence  of 
gravity  or  capillarity,   and   it   is   held   so  firmly 
that    it    is    driven    off     only   when    the    soil    is 
exposed   to    a   temperature    of    212°   Fahr.     The 
dryest    road -dust    firmly   holds    its    hygroscopic 
water,  and   it  may  constitute   from   2   to    3  per 
cent  or  more   of   the  weight  of  the  soil.     If   of 
service    to   plants    in   any  way,   it    is  only  dur- 
ing the  most  excessive  droughts,  in  which   case 
it    may    sustain     the    plants    for    a    time,    until 
capillary  water  is  supplied. 

68.  Both  capillary  and  hygroscopic  water  are 
frequently  referred   to    as  "film    moisture,"  from 
the  fact  that  they  are  held  as  a  film  of   greater 
or     less     thickness    around     the    soil     particles. 
That    part    which    has    the    most    intimate    and 
permanent  contact  with  the  particle  is  the  hygro- 
scopic   water,   and   the    outer   part   of    the   film, 
which  may  move  away  from  the  soil  particle,  is 
the    capillary    water.       Very   wet    land    is    that 
which  contains   too   much  free  water  ;     whereas, 
soils    which    are    dryish     and    crumbly    usually 
contain     sufficient     water    for    the     growing    of 
plants.      That    is,   lands    in   good    condition    for 
the  growing  of    crops   are   moist,  not  wet ;  and 
we  may,  therefore,  speak  of  the  moisture  of  the 
soil  rather   than  the  water  of  the  soil. 


50  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

69.  The   free  water  of   the    soil   is  found   at 
varying  depths.    Frequently  it  comes  to  the  sur- 
face and  oozes  out  as  springs.    Again  it  is  many 
feet    below   the    surface.     The    supply   is   main- 
tained by  rainfall,  that  part  which  is    not  held 
by   capillary   attraction    or    removed    by   surface 
drainage   passing  down   to  the  level  of  the  free 
water.     In    soils    which    are    very    porous     and 
open,  as  gravelly  soils,  a  large  part  of  the  rain- 
fall  passes    down    quickly,    and    such    soils    are 
said  to   be    "leachy."     With    soils   that  are   fine 
and  compact  and  impervious,  as   in  many  clays, 
the    water    runs    off    by    surface    drainage,    and 
not   only  is   the    supply   of   capillary   water   not 
increased    to    any    perceptible    degree,    but    the 
surface     flowing     removes    valuable     plant -food, 
causes     erosion,     and     increases     dangers     from 
floods.     Under  these  circumstances  rainfall  may 
be   a  detriment. 

3.    How   the   Moisture -holding   Capacity  of  the 
Soil   May   be  Increased 

3a.    The   capacity   of  the   soil 

70.  The  first  step  toward  utilizing  the  water 
of  the  soil  is  to  so  fit  the  land  that  the  rainfall 
may  be   stored.     In   the  winter   months   a  large 
percentage  of  the  rainfall  is  removed  by  surface 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL  51 

drainage,  and  in  the  summer  months  by  evapo- 
ration. The  soil  should  be  put  into  such  con- 
dition in  the  fall  that  it  can  readily  absorb  the 
winter  rainfall.  If  the  surface  is  hard,  smooth 
and  compacted,  as  is  often  the  case  with  clay 
soils,  it  should  be  loosened  with  the  plow  and 
be  left  rough  and  uneven.  If  there  is  danger  of 
surface  erosion  or  washing,  some  quick -germi- 
nating seed  (as  rye  or  pea)  may  be  sown  in 
early  fall.  The  plants  prevent  the  rain  from 
flowing  away  rapidly,  and  the  roots  bind  the 
particles  of  soil  in  place. 

71.  The    capacity  of   the   soil    to    hold  water 
depends  upon  its   original   constitution   (whether 
clay,  loam,  sand,  etc.)  and  upon   the  treatment 
which   it    has  received.     If  the  humus  or  decay- 
ing  organic  matter  has  been  depleted,  its  mois- 
ture-holding capacity  is  diminished. 

72.  The  capacity  of  the  different  soils  to  hold 
capillary  and  hygroscopic  water   (when  dried  at 
a  temperature  of  144°)   is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing-table : 


Per  cent  (by  weight) 
of  moi»ture  held 
Kind  of  toil                            in  toil 

Per  cent  (by  vol- 
ume) held  in 
toil 

Pound*  of  water 
in  1  cu.  ft. 
of  toil 

Silicious  sand    . 
Sandy  clay     .... 

.    .    25 
40 

37.9 
51.4 
57.3 
62.9 
G9.8 
67  3 

27.3 

38.8 
41.4 
45.4 
50.1 

48.4 

Loamy  clay    .... 

50 

Stiff  brick-clay    .    . 
Humus    

.    .    61 
181 

Garden  mold 

89 

52  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

36.    Capacity  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  humus 

73.  A  study  of   the   above  table  reveals  the 
fact  that  the   humous  soil   (33)   far  exceeds  any 
of    the   others    in   its    ability   to   hold   moisture. 
By  long -continued  cropping  and  tilling,  without 
making    proper   returns    in    the   way   of    green- 
manures    or   barn -manures,   the   humus    may  be 
so  reduced  that  the  soil  consists  very  largely  of 
mineral   matter.     One  reason  why  newly  cleared 
lands    frequently  give  more   satisfactory   returns 
than     lands    which     have    been     long    cropped, 
is   that  the   fresh  land   is  rich    hi  humus.     The 
soil   is   consequently  open   and   porous,  and   the 
rain    which    falls     is    quickly   absorbed,    and    is 
largely    retained     as     capillary    or    hygroscopic 
water. 

74.  The  humus  of  the  soil  may  be  gradually 
increased   by  plowing  under  green -crops,  by  the 
use     of     barn -manures,     by    using     cover -crops 
during   the   late   summer  and    fall    and   plowing 
them    under   in     the    spring     before    they    have 
used   up    the   moisture   which    should    be   saved 
for   the   succeeding    crop.      These   practices   can 
be    overdone,   however,   and    the    soil    made    so 
loose    and    open    that    the    winds    cause    it   to 
dry    out    quickly,   and    the     power    of    drawing 
moisture   from   the  stores  of  -free  water  will   be 
greatly  lessened. 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL  53 

3c.    Capacity  may  be   increased  by   under -drainage 

75.  Drainage  has  an  intimate  relation  to  soil 
moisture.     By    drainage    is    meant     the     means 
employed   for   the    removal    of   the    surplus    free 
water.     Surface    or   open    ditches   may  serve    as 
conduits   to  carry  off  surface  water,  but   as  soil 
drains    they   are    failures.     The    correct    method 
for  removing  the  surplus  water  of  rainfall   is  to 
cause   it  to  sink  into  the   soil   and   be  removed 
by   under- drains.     That   which    is    removed    by 
surface  flow  fails  to  impart  any  beneficial  effect 
to  the  soil  (69). 

76.  Lands  which  are  well  under- drained  are 
porous.     The  rain  which  falls  upon  them  passes 
down   quickly,    and    is  not   removed   by   surface 
flow.     It  is  removed  only  when  the  level  of  the 
free  water  rises  to  the  level   of  the  drain.     By 
observing  the  action  of  drains  which  are  of  dif- 
ferent depths,    it   has    been   found   that   after   a 
protracted    drought   the   drains   which    begin    to 
flow   first    are    those   which   are    at   the   greatest 
depth,    showing   that   as    the    level    of    the    free 
water   rises   to   the  drain   the    flow   begins,   and 
that  it  is  not  removed  to  any  considerable  ex- 
tent in  its  downward   passage. 

77.  The  sinking  of  the  water  through  the  soil 
does  more  good  than  merely  to  supply  moisture. 
In  the  spring  the  rain  is  warmer  than  the   soil, 


54  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

and  in  passing  down  it  gives  up  some  of  its 
heat,  and  the  soil  temperature  is  thereby  raised. 
In  the  summer  the  rain  is  the  cooler,  and  the 
soil  parts  with  some  of  its  heat.  On  lands 
which  have  been  thoroughly  under -drained,  crops 
are  far  better  able  to  withstand  drought  than 
those  on  land  which  needs  drainage. 

78.  Few    cultivated    plants    can   thrive    with 
their  roots  in  free  water.     When  the  free  water 
is   near   the    surface,   it   is    injurious   in    several 
ways  :  it  limits  the  feeding  space  ;  it  makes  the 
soil  cold   in  spring  ;  it  occupies  the  space  which 
should  be  filled  with  air  ;  it  causes  plant -food  to 
be  locked  up  ;  it  dilutes  the  plant -food   in  solu- 
tion;   it  prevents  the  action  of  micro-organisms; 
it  causes  the  rainfall  to  be  carried  off  largely  by 
surface  drainage.    Thorough  under -drainage  tends 
to  remove  all    these  unfavorable  conditions.      If 
there   is   no    effective    under -drainage,  either    by 
natural    or    artificial    channels,   the    water    must 
escape    by  surface  evaporation. 

3d.  The  capacity  is  increased  by  proper  tillage 

79.  Tillage  enables  soils  to  hold  moisture  by 
two  means  :   by  increasing  the  depth  of  the  soil 
in  which   the   plants   can   grow    (that  is,  by  in- 
creasing the    depth   of    the    reservoir),  and    by 
increasing  the  capillary  power  of  the  soil.     We 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL  55 

have  already  seen  (57,  75-78)  that  draining  in- 
creases the  depth  of  the  soil ;  so  does  deep  plow- 
ing. Capillarity  is  increased  by  finely  dividing 
or  pulverizing  the  soil. 

80.  Increasing    the    capillarity    increases    the 
moisture -holding  capacity  of  soils  in  two  ways  : 
it   enables  the  soil  to  actually  hold  more  mois- 
ture   per    square    inch  ;     it    enables    it   to    draw 
up    moisture    from   the   free  water  of  the   lower 
subsoil  (65). 

81.  By    the    action    of    capillary    attraction, 
moisture  moves  from  one  layer  of  soil  to  another 
(66),  usually  from   the    lower   to  the   upper,  to 
supply  the  place   of   that  which  has    been  used 
by  plants,    or  which  has   been   lost  by  evapora- 
tion.    The  rapidity  of   movement  and  the  force 
with    which    it    is     held     depend    upon    various 
conditions.     A    soil    in    which   the    particles    are 
somewhat    large,  as   in   sandy  or  gravelly   soils, 
may,  if   well    compacted,  show   considerable   ra- 
pidity of    movement,  but  weak  power  to  retain 
moisture.      The    finer   the    division    of    the    soil 
particles    the    greater   is    the    surface    presented. 
In    finely    divided    clay    soils,    the   movement   of 
capillary  water  is  slow   but  the  retaining  power 
is  great.     Occasionally  it  happens  that  the  par- 
ticles are  so  fine  that  the  spaces  disappear,  and 
there    is    produced    a    condition    through    which 
moisture   and    air   cannot   pass.      This    state   of 


56  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

affairs  is  produced  when  clay  soils  are  "puddled." 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  soils  which  are 
either  very  loose  or  exceedingly  finely  pulverized 
are  not  in  the  best  condition  for  the  holding  of 
moisture  ;  but  the  danger  of  over -pulverizing  is 
very  small. 

4.    The    Conservation   of  Moisture 

82.  By    conservation    of    moisture    is    meant 
the    prevention  of   all  unnecessary  waste  of   the 
capillary  water  of  the  soil,  either  through  weeds 
or  by  evaporation.     It  is  the   saving  and  utiliz- 
ing  of   moisture.      The    object    is   to    make   the 
water   which    seeks    to   escape    from   the   surface 
pass   through   the   cultivated   plants.     Plants   re- 
quire    that    their     food     be     in     solution.      The 
moisture    of     the     soil     contains     plant -food     in 
solution.       If     this     moisture     is     permitted     to 
escape     from     the     surface     by     evaporation,    it 
leaves  the  plant -food  at  the  surface.     This  food 
cannot  nourish  plants,   because  it  is   out  of  the 
range   of  their  feeding  roots.     If   the   escape   of 
the    moisture     is    through    the   plants,    there    is 
created    a    moisture    current    towards    the   roots, 
and   the  plant -food  is   carried  where    it    can    be 
used  to   advantage. 

83.  Moisture     rapidly    rises     to     the    surface 
by  capillarity,  to  replace  that  which  has  evapo- 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL  57 

rated  or  has  been  used  by  plants,  if  the  soil  is 
in  proper  physical  condition.  Measures  should 
be  adopted  to  prevent  this  moisture  from  be- 
ing lost  by  evaporation.  The  most  practical 
and  effective  method  is  by  establishing  and 
maintaining  a  surface  mulch  of  soil.  By  fre- 
quent use  of  implements  of  tillage,  which  loosen 
the  soil  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  this 
mulch  may  be  preserved  and  the  moisture 
saved.  The  drier  and  looser  this  mulch,  the 
more  effective  it  is.  This  dry  and  loose  surface 
breaks  the  capillary  connection  between  the  air 
and  the  moist  under- soil,  and  has  the  effect  of 
interposing  a  foreign  body  between  the  atmos- 
phere and  the  earth.  A  board  or  a  blanket 
laid  on  the  earth  has  the  same  effect,  and  the 
soil  is  moist  beneath  it.  This  soil -mulch  should 
be  renewed,  or  repaired,  in  the  growing  season, 
as  often  as  it  becomes  hard  or  baked,  by  means 
of  shallow  tillage. 

SUGGESTIONS   ON  CHAPTER  III 

62a.  To  show  that  growing  plants  are  constantly  giving  off 
large  quantities  of  water  through  their  foliage,  grow  corn,  beans 
or  squashes  in  rich  soil  in  a  flower- pot.  Over  the  soil  in  the  pot 
should  be  placed  a  rubber  or  oiled  cloth  covering,  so  that  no 
moisture  can  come  from  this  source.  Then  over  the  plant  place 
a  glass  bell -jar  or  a  common  fruit- jar,  and  notice  how  rapidly 
tne  moisture  collects  on  the  interior  of  the  jar  (Fig.  10).  This 
experiment  may  be  conducted  even  better  in  the  field. 


58 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


63o.  Irrigation  is  of  primary  value,  of  course,  in  all  arid  coun- 
tries; but  as  complete  systems  of  land  culture  develop,  it  must  be 
employed  also  in  countries  of  free  rainfall  in  order  to  tide  over 
periods  of  drought  and  to  enable  the  husbandman  to  control  his  con- 
ditions. Irrigation  will  come  more  and  more  to  be  a  truly  national 
problem. 

66rt.  Capillary  action,  or  capillarity,  is  due  to  the  attraction 
of  matter  for  mattei .  Capillary  attraction  is  that  force  which 


Fig.  10.    How  to  show  that  plants  give 
off  moisture. 


Fig.  11.    To  determine  how  much 
water  a  soil  can  hold. 


causes  a  liquid  to  ascend  or  descend  or  move  laterally  through 
very  small  openings  or  tubes,  or  the  interstices  between  fine  par- 
ticles of  solid  matter,  or  by  which  it  is  held  to  the  surface  of  the 
particles  themselves.  The  teacher  should  illustrate  capillarity  by 
the  familiar  experiment  of  standing  tubes  of  glass  in  water.  The 
smaller  the  bore  of  the  tube,  the  higher  the  water  rises.  The  oil 
rises  in  the  wick  by  means  of  capillarity.  The  principle  may  be 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THK    SOIL  59 

illustrated  by  filling  straight  (or  argand)  lamp  chimneys  with 
compacted  dry  soil  and  standing  them  in  a  dish  of  water. 

68a.  Film  moisture  can  be  illustrated  by  dipping  a  marble 
into  water  and  observing  the  skin  or  film  of  moisture  adhering  to 
all  sides.  The  most  satisfactory  conditions  of  soil  moisture  exist 
when  each  soil  grain  is  covered  by  a  film  of  water.  The  char- 
acter of  film  moisture  is  changed  by  the  thickness  of  the  film. 
The  thicker  the  film,  the  less  the  tension  to  the  body,  until 
it  becomes  so  thick  as  to  separate  from  that  body  and  become  a 
drop  of  water  ;  and  it  is  then  subject  to  the  law  of  gravitation, 
and  can  travel  but  in  one  direction — downward.  While  in  a  state 
of  film  moisture,  it  is  amenable  to  the  law  of  capillary  attraction, 
and  can  move  in  any  direction,  which  means  that  it  goes  towards 
the  thinnest  films.  The  readiness  with  which  water  films  travel 
can  be  seen  by  dipping  a  piece  of  cube  sugar  into  coffee  and 
observing  how  quickly  the  liquid  pervades  the  lump  of  sugar. 
That  soil  moisture  may  move  with  the  same  facility  as  the 
coffee  does  in  the  sugar,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  soil  grains 
in  proper  touch  one  with  another  ; — not  so  far  apart  but  that 
the  water  films  can  reach  one  to  the  other,  not  so  close  as  to 
impede  the  progress  of  the  films.  The  two  extremes  in  soil  can 
be  seen  in  loose  gravel  and  hard  clay. 

70a.  By  rainfall  is  meant  precipitation, — the  fall  of  water  in 
any  form,  as  in  rain,  snow  and  hail. 

72a.  That  different  soils  vary  in  their  capacity  to  hold 
moisture  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  experiment  :  Pro- 
vide several  flower-pots  of  the  same  size  and  shape.  The  va- 
rious soils  should  be  thoroughly  dried  in  an  oven.  At  least 
four  kinds  of  soil  should  be  tested:  gravel,  sand,  clay,  and  gar- 
den loam.  Place  an  equal  weight  of  each  soil  in  the  pots. 
Suspend  one  of  the  pots  from  a  common  spring-scales  (Fig.  11). 
Notice  the  number  of  pounds  and  ounces  registered.  Now 
slowly  pour  water  upon  the  soil  until  it  is  thoroughly  saturated. 
Cover  with  a  piece  of  oiled  cloth  or  oiled  paper,  and  allow  it 
to  drain  until  no  more  water  will  flow  from  it.  The  water 
which  drains  from  the  pot  is  the  free  water.  The  difference  in 
weight  of  the  pot  of  soil  before  soaking,  and  after  the  drainage, 
shows  the  amount  of  water  held  by  capillarity. 


60 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


74a.  The  plowing  under  of  green -crops  sometimes  gives 
unsatisfactory  results.  If  a  heavy  growth  is  plowed  under  when 
the  soil  does  not  contain  sufficient  moisture  to  cause  ready 

decomposition,  this  layer  of  foreign 
matter  prevents  the  passage  of 
the  water  from  the  subsoil  to  the 
surface  soil  (Fig.  12).  The  crop 
which  is  then  planted  must  nec- 
essarily feed  for  some  time  in  the 
surface  soil,  and  in  case  of  pro- 
longed drought  a  partial  or  com- 
plete failure  of  the  crop  may  re- 
sult. Heavy  growths  of  cover - 
crops,  as  well  as  coarse,  strawy 
manures,  should  be  plowed  under 
when  there  is  sufficient  moisture 
in  the  soil  to  cause  decomposition. 
In  case  it  is  necessary  to  plow 
them  under  when  the  soil  is  dry, 
a  heavy  roller  will  so  compact  the 
soil  that  capillarity  will  be  in  part  restored  and  decomposition 
hastened. 

75a.  While  surface  drains  are  to  be  avoided,  yet  it  frequently 
becomes  necessary  to  provide  a  conduit  or  open  ditch  into  which 
tile  drains  may  open,  or  to  remove  flood  water.  It  is  a  common 
error  to  have  the  banks  too  vertical.  Through  the  action  of  frost  or 
the  tramping  of  stock,  the  banks  are  constantly  requiring  atten- 
tion. The  ditch  should  be  wide,  and  the  banks  should  have  a 
gradual  slope,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  13.  Grass-seed  should  be 
sown  over  the  sides  and  bottom,  so  that  the  sod  will  prevent 
washing.  One  can  drive  across  such  a  ditch.  When  possible, 
this  ditch  would  be  made  the  boundary  of  a  field,  or  be  placed 
near  a  fence. 

76a.  The  depth  at  which  tile  drains  should  be  placed  must  be 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In  very  compact  and 
impervious  soils,  as  clay,  the  drains  must  be  closer  together  and 
nearer  the  surface  than  in  porous  soils.  Land  may  become  so 


Fig.  12.     The  layer  (a  b)  of  unde- 
composed  herbage. 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL 


61 


hard  upon  the  surface  that  the  water  of  rainfall  never  can  pass 
down.  By  placing  the  drains  shallow,  the  soil  is  rendered  mellow 
and  porous,  water  passes  down  readily,  the  level  of  free  water  is 
raised,  and  the  surplus  is  removed. 

766.    The  distance  apart  at  which  drains  should  be  placed  is 
variable,    but  30  feet  is  usually  considered  most  advisable.     The 


Fig.  13.     Properly  made  open  ditch. 


level  of  the  free  water  tends  to  rise  higher  at  a  point  midway 
between  drains,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  If  the  drains  are  too  far 
apart,  this  tendency  may  be  greater  than  the  tendency  to  move 
toward  the  drain.  In  soils  through  which  the  water  moves  some- 
what readily,  the  drains  may  be  farther  removed  than  in  close, 
impervious  soils. 

78a.    In  the  spring,   on   undrained  soils,   free  water  remains 
for  a  considerable  time  near  the  surface  ;  consequently  the  plant 


Fig.  14.    Sides  too  steep. 

roots  cannot  penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil.  When  the  drought 
comes  the  surface  is  first  affected,  and  the  plants  suffer  at  once. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  tap-rooted  plants  are  admirably 
fitted  to  withstand  dry  weather.  Their  feeders  are  deep  in  the 
soil.  It  is  this  condition  which  is  obtained  to  a  certain  extent  by 
under-drainage.  The  soil  above  the  drain  is  made  porous,  the 
water  which  cannot  be  held  by  capillarity  is  quickly  removed,  the 
air  penetrates,  the  soil  becomes  warm  and  congenial.  Thus 


Fig.  15.  Showing  the  condition  which 
prevails  in  spring  on  cold,  undrained 
soils, — when  the  water-table  is  too 
high. 


Fig.  16.  When  the  drought  comes, 
the  plant  is  still  shallow-rooted, 
and  it  suffers. 


Fig.  17.    On  well-drained  soils,  the 
roots  strike  downwards. 


Fig  18.     When  the  drought  comes, 
the  plant  does  not  suffer. 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL  63 

plants  are  enabled  early  in  their  growth  to  send  their  roots  down, 
and  when  drought  comes  they  are  not  seriously  injured.  Figs. 
15-18  illustrate  this. 

79a.  The  soil  reservoir  may  be  understood  by  likening  it  to 
a  pan.  A  two-inch  rainfall  fills  an  inch-deep  pan  and  runs  it 
over  ;  but  if  the  depth  is  increased  to  two  inches,  none  of  the 
rain  escapes.  The  hard-pan  or  water-table  is  the  bottom  of  the 
soil  reservoir.  If  this  bottom  is  within  a  few  inches  of  the  sur- 
face, the  ordinary  rainfalls  fill  the  soil  so  full  that  it  is  muddy, 
and  some  of  the  water  may  be  lost  by  surface  washing.  Deep 
plowing  lowers  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir,  and  the  soil  holds 
more  water  and  yet  remains  drier. 

81a.  Tillage  operations  should  vary  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil.  Those  soils  which  are  loose  and  porous  should  be 
compacted  after  plowing,  so  that  the  capillary  connection  may 
be  restored  between  the  surface  and  the  subsoil.  The  roller 
may  be  used.  With  finely  divided  soils,  which  have  a  tendency 
to  become  too  compact,  only  so  much  tillage  should  be  given  as 
is  necessary  to  produce  the  proper  degree  of  pulverization.  It  is 
possible  to  so  compact  and  fine  some  soils,  as  clays,  that  the 
spaces  between  the  soil  particles  is  filled,  and  a  condition  is 
produced  which  prevents  the  rise  of  moisture  by  capillarity,  and 
also  prevents  the  absorption  of  rainfall  and  the  passage  of  air. 

81&.  Of  general  farm  crops,  about  three  hundred  pounds  ot 
water  is  used  in  the  production  of  one  pound  of  dry  matter.  An 
inch  of  rainfall  weighs,  approximately,  one  hundred  and  thirteen 
and  one-half  tons  to  the  acre.  The  student  will  discover  that 
the  rainfall  of  the  growing  months  may  not  be  sufficient  to  supply 
the  crop  ;  hence  the  necessity  of  saving  the  rainfall  of  winter 
and  spring. 

83a.  On  the  general  subject  of  soil  moisture  and  its  conser- 
vation, read  Chaps,  v.  and  vi.  in  King's  "Soil,"  and  Chap.  iv.  in 
Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land."  Also  consult  publications  of 
the  Experiment  Stations  and  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture; 
and  part  3  in  Vol.  I  of  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture  ;  also 
the  recent  soil  books  of  Hilgard,  and  of  Lyon  and  Fippin. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   TILLAGE    OF    THE   SOIL 
1.   What   Tillage  Is 

84.  We    have   found    (52,  79)   that    tillage  is 
one  of  the  means  of  improving  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil.     By  tillage  is  meant  the  stir- 
ring  of  the   soil    for   the  purpose  of  facilitating 
the  growth  of  plants. 

85.  We  may  divide  tillage    into  two   general 
kinds, — tillage  which   covers    the  entire  ground, 
and  tillage  which  covers   only  that   part  of   the 
ground    which    lies    between    the    plants.      The 
former  we  may  call  open  or  general  tillage,  and 
the  latter  inter -tillage.     We  practice  open  tillage 
before   the   seed    is   sown :    it  therefore  prepares 
the  land  for  the  crop.     We  practice  inter- tillage 
in   fruit    plantations    and    between    the    rows    of 
crops :     it   therefore   maintains    the    condition  of 
the   soil. 

86.  We  may  also  speak  of  tillage  as  deep  or 
shallow.     In  a  general  way,  tillage  is  deep  when 
it  extends  more  than  six  inches  into  the  ground. 
We    also    speak    of    surface     tillage,    when    the 

(64) 


THE    TILLAGE    OP    THE    SOIL  65 

stirring   is    confined    to    the    one,    two    or   three 
uppermost  inches  of  the  soil. 

2.   What    Tillage  Does 

87.  Tillage  improves  the  physical  condition  of 
the  soil :    by  fining  the   soil   and    extending   the 
feeding  area   for  roots   (53) ;    by   increasing  the 
depth  of  the  soil,  or  loosening  it,  so  that  plants 
obtain  a   deeper  root -hold  ;    by  causing  the  soil 
to  dry  out   and    warm  up    in   spring ;    by  mak- 
ing  the  conditions  of  moisture  and   temperature 
more  uniform  throughout  the  growing  season. 

88.  It   aids    in    the    saving   of    moisture :    by 
increasing  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil, 
or  deepening  the  reservoir  (79) ;  by  checking  the 
evaporation  (or  conserving,  or  saving,  moisture) 
by  means  of   the  surf  ace -mulch    (83).     The  for- 
mer is  the  result  of   deep  tillage,  as  deep  plow- 
ing, and  the  latter  of  surface  tillage. 

89.  It  hastens   and  augments  chemical  action 
in  the  soil :   by  aiding  to  set  free  plant-food  ;    by 
promoting  nitrification  (Chap,  vi.);  by  admitting 
air  to  the  soil ;  by  lessening  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture ;    by  hastening  the  decomposition  of  organic 
matter,    as    of    green -crops    or    stable    manures 
which  are  plowed  under  ;    by  extending  all  these 
benefits  to  greater  depths  in  the  soil.     In  a  very 
important  sense,  tillage  is  manure. 


66  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

3.  How  Tillage  Is  Performed 
3a.  By  deep -working  tools 

90.  Plowing.     We   plow  (a)  to  get    the  land 
in  fit  condition  for  planting,  (b)  to  pulverize  the 
soil,    (c)    to    turn    under    manures,   green-crops, 
and  trash,    (d)  to  deepen  the   soil,  and  thereby 
increase  its   storage  capacity  for  water   and  ex- 
tend the  root  pasturage,  (e)   to   break  up  or  to 
form  a  hard-pan,  (/)  to  warm  and  dry  the  land, 
(g)    to    allow   the   weather   to    act    on    the    soil. 
Passing  over  the  first  subject   (a),  we   may  ex- 
plain the  remaining  objects  of  plowing. 

91.  (b)  Plowing  is   the  most  efficient  means 
of  pulverizing  the  soil.     That  is,  it  is  not  enough 
that   the    soil    be   inverted :    it  must   be    ground 
and    broken.      For    purposes    of     pulverization, 
the    shape    of    the    plow    should  be    such    as    to 
twist  the  furrow -slice,  causing  it   to   break  and 
crumble  as  it  falls.     The  moldboard,   therefore, 
should  have  a  sharp,  bold  outward  curve  at  its 
upper  extremity  ;  and  the  furrow-slice  should  be 
left  in  an  inclined,  or   even  nearly  perpendicular 
position,  rather  than  turned  over  flat. 

92.  (c)   Since    it    is    important    that    organic 
matter,   as    manures,   shall   quickly   decay  when 
turned  under,  the  plowing  should  be  done  when 
the  season  is  moist,  as  in  early  spring  or  in  fall. 


THE    TILLAGE    OF    THE     SOIL  67 

Clover  and  rye  are  also  apt  to  become  too  hard 
and  dry  if  allowed  to  grow  to  maturity.  Herb- 
age which  does  not  decay  quickly  when  plowed 
down  may  seriously  injure  the  crop,  for  that 
season  (74a).  For  the  covering  of  herbage,  the 
furrow  should  be  broad  and  deep  ;  and  if  the 
land  is  to  be  surf  ace -tilled  shortly  after  the 
plowing,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  furrow- 
slice  turns  down  rather  flat,  so  as  to  completely 
cover  the  plants. 

93.  (d)  The  deeper   the  plowing,  the  greater 
the  water- storage  reservoir  will  be,  other   things 
being  equal;    but   the    plowing  may  be   so  very 
deep  as  to  bring  the  unproductive  subsoil  to  the 
surface,  in  which   case   the    increase   of    storage 
capacity  may   be   overbalanced    by   the    loss    of 
available  fertility.     On  most  soils   and  for  most 
crops,  eight  or  nine  inches   is  a  sufficient  depth 
for  the  plow.     Shallow  soils  are  both  too  dry  and 
too  wet.     They  are  too  dry,  because  much  of  the 
rainfall    is    lost   in   surface   drainage   or  by  very 
rapid  evaporation.     They  are  too  wet  after  every 
hard   rain,  because   the  water  is  held   near   the 
surface  (79a). 

94.  (e)  If    a  hard-pan   is  near   the    surface, 
deep   plowing   will    break    it   up,    although    the 
most  permanent  remedy  may  be  under-drainage. 
In  very  porous  soils,  however,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to   form   a   hard-pan    in    order   to   prevent 


68  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

leaching.  This  is  done  by  plowing  at  the  same 
depth  each  year,  so  that  the  land  becomes  com- 
pacted under  the  furrow.  Loose  and  sandy  lands 
may  need  shallow  plowing  rather  than  deep 
plowing. 

95.  (/)   Land  which  is   turned  up  loose  soon 
dries  out,  because  so  much  surface  is  exposed  to 
the  air.     In  spring,  it  is  often  necessary  to  make 
lands  warm  and  dry,  especially  if  such  crops  as 
corn  and   potatoes  and  cofton  are  to  be  planted; 
and   this  is   done  by  very  early  plowing.      The 
slices    should    not    be     turned     down    flat,    but 
allowed   to   lie   up    loose    and    broken,    and   the 
harrow  should  not  be  used  until  the  soil  begins 
to   be   dry  and  crumbly.     Care  should  be   taken 
not  to   plow  clay  lands  when  wet,  however,  else 
they  become  lumpy  and  unmanageable. 

96.  (g)  Freezing  and  thawing  often  pulverize 
and    improve    heavy    lands,    particularly    clays. 
Fall    plowing,    therefore,    may   be    advisable    on 
lands  which  tend  to  remain  lumpy.     The  results 
are  best  when  the  furrow-slices  are  left  in  a  per- 
pendicular  position    (as   in  Fig.   21),   and  when 
the  harrow  is  not  used  until  the  following  spring. 
Heavy  clays  tend   to  puddle   (81)   or  to   cement 
together  if  fall  plowed,   but  the  danger  is  least 
when  there  is  herbage  (as  heavy  sod  or  stubble) 
or  manure  on  the  land  before  it  is  plowed. 

97.  Subsoiling.    When  it  is  desired  to  loosen 


THE    TILLAGE    OP    THE    SOIL  60 

or  pulverize  the  land  to  a  great  depth,  the  sub- 
soil plow  is  run  in  the  furrow  behind  the  ordi- 
nary plow.  Subsoiliug  provides  a  deeper  bed 
for  roots,  breaks  up  the  hard-pan,  and  dries  the 
soil.  More  permanent  results  are  usually  ob- 
tained by  thorough  under-drainage. 

36.  By  surface-working  tools 

98.  Tillage     by     means     of      surface-working 
tools — as  hoes,  rakes,  cultivators,  harrows,  clod- 
crushers — has     the    following     objects :      (a)     to 
make  a  bed  in  which  seeds  can  be  sown  or  plants 
set,    (b)  to  cover  the  seeds,  (c)  to  pulverize  the 
ground,  (d )  to  establish  and  maintain  an  earth- 
mulch,  (e)  to   destroy  weeds.     Aside   from  these 
specific   benefits,    surface    tillage    contributes    to 
the    general     betterment    of    soil    conditions,    as 
outlined  in  87,  88,  89. 

99.  In    making     the     earth  -mulch     (the    im- 
portance   of    which    as    a    saver    of    moisture   is 
fully  explained   in  82,  83),   the   other  objects   of 
surface    tillage    are    also    secured ;    therefore    we 
may  confine  our  attention  to  the  earth-mulch  for 
the   present.      The    mulch    is    made    by   shallow 
tillage — about  three  inches   deep,  in  field  condi- 
tions— before  the  seeds  are  sown.     The  first  til- 
lage  after  plowing  is  usually  with  a  heavy  and 
coarse  tool, — as  a  clod-crusher,  cutaway  harrow, 


70  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

or  spring- tooth  harrow, — and  its  object  is  pulver- 
ization of  the  ground.  The  finishing  is  done 
with  a  small-toothed  and  lighter  harrow ;  and 
this  finishing  provides  the  seed-bed  and  the  soil- 
mulch. 

100.  The  earth-mulch  is  destroyed  by  rains  : 
the   ground    becomes    baked.     But   even   in   dry 
times    it     becomes    compact,    and    capillarity    is 
restored    between    the    under-soil    and    the    air. 
Therefore,  the  mulch  must  be  maintained  or  re- 
paired.    That  is,  the  harrow  or  cultivator  must 
be  used   as   often  as   the  ground   becomes  hard, 
particularly  after  every  rain.     In  dry  times,  this 
surface  tillage   should  usually  be   repeated  every 
ten  days, — oftener  or  less  often  as  the  judgment 
of  the  farmer  may  dictate.     The  drier   the  time 
and   the   country,   the    greater   the   necessity  for 
maintaining  the  soil-mulch  ;    but  the  mulch  is  of 
comparatively   little   effect  in  a  dry  time    if  the 
soil    moisture   was    allowed    to   evaporate   earlier 
in  the  season. 

101.  Surface    tillage    is   usually  looked    upon 
only  as  a  means  of  killing  weeds,  but  we  now  see 
that  we  should  till   for  tillage's   sake, — to   make 
the  land  more  productive.     If  tillage  is  frequent 
and  thorough — if  the  soil -mulch  is  maintained — 
weeds    cannot   obtain   a    start ;    and   this    is  the 
ideal  and  profitable  condition,  to  which,  however, 
there  may  be  exceptions. 


THE    TILLAGE     OF    THE     SOIL  71 

3c.  By  compacting  tools 

102.  The    compacting   tools    are   rollers,    and 
the    implements    known    as    plankers    or   floats. 
The  objects  of   rolling  'are  :     (a)  to  crash  clods, 

(b)  to   smoothen  the   ground    for   the  seed-bed, 

(c)  to  hasten  germination  of  seeds,   (d)   to  com- 
pact   and ,  solidify   soils  which  are  otherwise   too 
loose    and    open,   (e)  to    put    the    land    in    such 
condition    that    other    tools    can    act    efficiently, 
(/)  to  facilitate  the  marking- out  of  land. 

103.  By    compacting    the     surface    soil,    the 
roller  re-establishes   the  capillary  connection  be- 
tween   the  under -soil    and   the   air :     that   is,  it 
destroys    the    earth -mulch.     In    its    passage    up- 
wards, the  soil   moisture   supplies  the  seeds  with 
water ;      and   the    particles    of    the    soil    are   in 
intimate  contact  with  the   seeds,  and,  therefore, 
with  the  soil  moisture.     If  the  surface  of   rolled 
lands  is    moister   than    loose-tilled    lands,  there- 
fore, it  is  because  the  moisture  is  passing  off  into 
the  air  and  is  being  lost. 

104.  The    rolling    of    lands,    then,    sacrifices 
soil   moisture.     The  rolled  or  compacted  surface 
should  not  be  allowed  to  remain,  but  the  earth- 
mulch    should    be    quickly   restored,  to    prevent 
evaporation,  particularly  in  dry  weather.     When 
the    object  of   rolling  is    to  hasten  germination, 
however,  the  surface  cannot   be  tilled  at  once  ; 


72 

but  if  the  seed  is  in  rows  or  hills,  as  maize  or 
garden  vegetables,  tillage  should  begin  as  soon 
as  the  plants  have  appeared. 

SUGGESTIONS   ON  CHAPTER  IV 

84a.  Tillage  is  a  specific  or  special  word,  and  is  much  better 
than  the  more  general  word  culture,  when  one  is  speaking  of  the 
stirring  of  the  soil.  The  culture  of  a  crop  properly  comprises 
tillage,  pruning,  fertilizing,  and  other  good  care. 

85a.  For  the  origin  of  the  word  inter -tillage,  see  foot-note  in 
Eoberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  p.  69. 

88a.  It  should  be  observed  that  surface  tillage  saves  moisture 
by  preventing  evaporation,  not,  as  commonly  supposed,  by  caus- 
ing the  soil  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  When 
moisture  is  most  needed,  is  the  season  in  which  the  air  is  dryer 
than  the  soil. 

89a.  To  illustrate  the  importance  of  air,  select  a  thrifty 
plant,  other  than  aquatic  plant,  growing  in  a  florist's  pot,  and 
exclude  all  the  air  by  keeping  the  soil  saturated  with  water,  or 
even  by  keeping  the  bottom  of  the  plant  standing  deep  in  water, 
and  note  the  checking  of  growth,  and,  in  time,  the  decline  of  the 
plant.  The  remarks  on  draining  (65,  78)  show  how  undrained 
soils  are  often  saturated  with  water  ;  and  no  matter  how  much 
raw  material  for  plant-food  may  exist  in  such  a  soil,  it  is  un- 
available to  the  plant.  The  reader  can  now  guess  why  crops  are 
poor  and  yellow  on  flat  lands  in  wet  seasons.  On  the  importance 
of  air  in  soils,  read  Chapter  ix.  of  King's  "Soil." 

896.  On  the  effects  and  necessity  of  tillage,  read  Chapter  iii. 
in  Eoberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  and  Chapter  xii.  in  King's 
"Soil."  A  most  interesting  diversion  in  this  connection  is  a 
perusal  of  Jethro  Tull's  famous  book  on  "Horse-Hoeing  Hus- 
bandry" (53c).  Copies  of  Cobbett's  edition  may  frequently  be 
found  in  antiquarian  book  stores. 

91o.    The  trench  left  by  the  plow  is  a  furrow.     The   earth 


V7"*te 

^Tr^^r- 


74 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


which  is  turned  out  of  the  furrow  is  a  furrow-slice.  In  common 
speech,  however,  the  word  furrow  is  often  used  for  the  furrow- 
slice. 

91&.  The  accompanying  pictures,  adapted  from  Roberts' 
"Fertility  of  the  Land,"  illustrate  different  types  of  plow-work. 
Fig.  19  shows  the  furrow-slice  completely  inverted,  This  kind  of 
plowing  looks  well,  but  it  is  not  desirable  unless  the  object  is  to 
bury  weeds  or  a  green- crop.  The  furrow- slices  are  not  broken. 


Fig.  23.    A  subsoil  plow. 


Fig.  24.     A  smoothing  harrow. 


and  pulverized,  and  they  are  in  such  position  that  the  harrow 
cannot  tear  them  to  pieces.  Fig.  20  represents  work  which  is 
better,  for  most  conditions,  although  the  slices  are  not  pulverized. 
Fig.  21  shows  ideal  plowing. 

91c.  The  ideal  plow  for  general  farm  work,  in  Roberts' 
opinion,  is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  Observe  the  "quick"  or  sharp 
curve  of  the  moldboard.  '  For  an  excellent  sketch  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plow,  consult  Chapter  ii.  of  Roberts'  "Fertility  of 
the  Land." 

93a.  About  12  to  20  per  cent  of  moisture  in  the  soil  is  the 
ideal  condition  for  most  plants.  Let  the  pupil  figure  out  what  the 
percentage  will  be  after  a  rainfall  of  one  inch  on  soils  that  are 
four  inches  deep  and  eight  inches  deep.  Consult  Roberts,  "Fer- 
tility of  the  Land,"  pp.  77  to  79. 

94a.  By  hard-pan  is  meant  very  hard  and  more  or  less 
impervious  subsoil.  Some  subsoils  are  rbose  ;  others  are  so  hard 
as  to  prevent  the  downward  movement  of  water  and  roots  (79<z). 


Fig.  25.     The  loose  mulch 
on  forest  soils. 


Fig.  26.    The  soil-mulch 
on  tilled  lands. 


Fig.  27.    A  home-made  planker. 


Fig.  28.  Showing  the  effect 
of  the  roller  in  compacting 
the  surface  layer. 


Pig.  29.  Showing  how  the 
soil-mulch  should  be  re- 
stored by  tillage  after  the 
roller  has  been  used. 


76  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

97a.  The  subsoil  plow  does  not  turn  a  furrow  (Fig.  23) .  It 
is  drawn  by  an  extra  team,  which  follows  the  ordinary  plowing. 

99a.  A  useful  tool  for  making  and  maintaining  the  soil -mulch 
is  the  smoothing  harrow  shown  in  Fig.  24.  On  hard  lands, 
however,  heavier  and  more  vigorous  tools  must  be  used. 

996.  Observe  how  moist  the  soil  is  in  forests,  even  in  dry 
times.  This  condition  is  due  partly  to  the  forest  shade,  but 
perhaps  chiefly  to  the  mulch  of  leaves  on  the  ground  (Fig.  25). 

lOla.  Some  farmers  are  always  asking  how  to  kill  weeds,  as 
if  this  were  the  chief  end  of  farming.  But  good  farmers  seldom 
worry  about  weeds,  because  that  management  of  the  farm  which 
makes  land  the  most  productive  is  also  the  one  which  prevents 
weeds  from  gaining  a  foothold.  But  there  are  some  cases,  as 
we  shall  find  in  the  next  chapter,  in  which  weeds  may  be 
allowed  to  grow  with  profit. 

102a.  A  planker  or  float  is  shown  in  Fig.  27.  This  is  a 
home-made  device.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  called  a 
slicker  ;  and  in  the  West  it  is  known  as  a  drag.  In  the  East,  the 
word  drag  is  synonymous  with  harrow. 

104rt.  To  determine  when  and  how  much  to  roll  land,  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  of  agricultural  operations.  This  is  because 
the  good  effects  are  so  often  followed  by  the  ill  effects  of  loss 
of  moisture  and  of  puddling  of  hard  lands  when  heavy  rains 
follow.  "Whenever  the  object  of  rolling  is  to  compact  loose 
lands  or  merely  to  crush  the  clods,  the  work  should  be  quickly 
followed  by  the  harrow  or  cultivator.  Compare  Figs.  28  and  29. 


CHAPTER  V 

ENRICHING    THE    SOIL— FARM   RESOURCES 
1.    What  Farm  Resources  Are 

105.  The    real    fertility   of    the    land    is    its 
power   to   produce  crops.     It   is  sometimes   said 
to   be   the   richness   of   the   soil    in   elements   of 
plant -food ;      but     soils    with     much     plant -food 
may    still     be    unproductive.      Fertility    is    pro- 
ductive  power.     It   is  the  result  of  good  physi- 
cal   condition    and    an    abundance    of    available 
pi  ant -food. 

106.  We    have    found    (in    Chapters    ii.,  iii. 
and  iv.)  that  the  first    step  towards    increasing 
the   productiveness     of    soil    is     to     improve    its 
physical    texture.     This    improvement   is    accom- 
plished   both    by  mechanical    means, — as    tillage 
and   drainage,— and    by  the   addition    of   humus. 
The  humus  results  from  the  application  or  incor- 
poration of  organic  matter. 

107.  We     have     seen     (34)     that     humus     is 
supplied,  in  practice,    by  cropping, — that  is,   by 
vegetable    matter    left   on    the   ground    after   the 
crop    is    removed,   or    by   crops   plowed  under j 

(77) 


78  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

and   by  stable  manures   and   other  direct  appli- 
cations. 

2.   Cropping  Resources 
2a.   The  kinds  of  green -manures 

108.  The  stubbles  of  grain,  clover,  grass  and 
sowed     corn     add     considerable     humus    to    the 
soil,    and    there    is    also    much   vegetable    fiber 
left  in  the  ground  in  the  roots  ;    and  the  refuse 
left    from   potatoes    and    garden   crops    is    often 
important.      Sometimes    the    stubble    and    roots 
are     nearly    as    valuable     for    ameliorating    the 
soil   as   the    part    which    is    removed     from   the 
land.      This    is    especially  true    in    clover,   par- 
ticularly if   it   is    not   cut   close    to  the   ground. 
Roberts  reports  that  a  second -growth  of  clover, 
two  years   from  seeding,  gave  5,417  pounds  per 
acre  of   top  and   2,368   pounds   of   roots    in  the 
upper  eight  inches   of  soil ;    and  the  roots  usu- 
ally extend  to  three  or  four  times  that  depth. 

109.  Humus    is    often    secured     by    growing 
crops    for  that   particular   purpose ;    that   is,    by 
the  practice  of  green -manuring.     Green -manure 
crops    are    of    three    categories :   (a)    regular   or 
full -season    crops,   which    occupy   the    land    for 
one   or   more    seasons    before    they   are    plowed 
under,    or    until    they   have    reached    nearly   or 
quite   their  full    growth  ;    (b)  catch -crops,  which 
are  grown  in  the  seasons  between  other  crops; 


ENRICHING    THE      SOIL — FARM    RESOURCES  79 

(c)  cover -crops,  which  are  sown  late  in  the 
season  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  soil 
during  winter  as  well  as  for  green -manuring. 

110.  Green -manuring    crops    may    be    again 
divided    into   those    which    gather   nitrogen    and 
those  which    do  not, — or    those  which  have    the 
power   of   using   the    nitrogen   (see    Chapter  vi.) 
of    the   air,    and    those    which    obtain    all    their 
nitrogen  directly  from   the   soil.     The  nitrogen  - 
gatherers   leave  their  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  when 
they  decay,  for    the    use  of    other    plants.     The 
nitrogen -gatherers    are    the    leguminous    plants, 
or  those    which    belong   to    the   pea    family,  as 
all    kinds   of    peas    and    beans,   clovers,   alfalfa, 
vetch.      The  other  class,  or  nitrogen -consumers, 
comprises   all   other    plants   used   for   green -ma- 
nuring, as  rye,  oats,  rape,  mustard,  buckwheat, 
maize. 

111.  In  general,  the  best  green -manure  crops 
are    the    legumes, — red    clover    for    the    North, 
alfalfa    for    dry   regions,    cow -peas    and    Japan 
clover    for   the    South.     With   the    exception   of 
the  cow -peas,  these  crops  require  one  or  more 
seasons    for    full    development,    and,    therefore, 
cannot   be    used    in    intensive    farming. 

2b.   The  management  of  green -manures 

112.  The  ideal  green -manuring  is  that  which 
is    a    part    of    a    regular    rotation, — the    green- 


80  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

manure  crop,  or  the  stubble  or  sod,  occurring 
regularly  once  every  few  years,  in  alternation 
with  wheat,  potatoes  and  other  staple  crops. 
This,  however,  is  possible  only  with  general  or 
mixed  husbandry  (4a).  In  market -gardening, 
and  other  intensive  farming,  catch -crops  are 
often  used.  In  fruit-growing,  cover-crops  are 
frequently  used. 

113.  But  even  in  intensive  farming,  the  land 
sometimes   becomes  unproductive  from  too   con- 
tinuous   cropping  with   one   thing,    and    the   too 
persistent   use    of   one    kind   of   fertilizer.     It   is 
then  often  "  rested "  by  seeding  it  to  clover  ;   but 
the  good  effects  are  not  the  result  of  a  rest,  but 
of  rotation  or  change  of  crop. 

114.  It   is    necessary  to    distinguish    between 
the    effects    of    green -crops    in    improving    soil 
texture  and   their  effects   in   enriching   the   soil ; 
for  soils  which  may  need   improving   in  texture 
may  not  need  enriching.     In   fruit-growing  this 
is  often  true  ;    and  the  heavy  addition  of  nitro- 
gen  (which    conduces    to    growth    of  wood)   may 
cause    the    plants   to    grow  too    heavily  and    to 
bear    little,   and    to    be    too    susceptible    to    dis- 
ease and  to   cold.     In   such  cases,  the  nitrogen- 
consumers    are  the    better  crops.     One  must   be 
careful  not  to  induce  an  over -growth  in  grapes, 
peaches,  apricots,  and  pears. 

115.  On   hard    and   poor    lands,    it    is   often 


ENRICHING    THE     SOIL, — FARM    RESOURCES  81 

difficult  to  secure  a  "catch"  of  clover.  In  such 
cases,  it  is  well  to  begin  with  fall -sown  rye  or 
field  peas.  When  the  soil  has  become  mellow, 
clover  may  be  successful. 

116.  Cover-crops    are    used    mostly   in    fruit 
plantations.     They  are    sown  in   midsummer,  or 
later,  after  tillage  is  completed, — for  tillage  should 
cease   early,  in  order  that   the    fruit   plants  will 
not  grow  too   heavily  and   too  late.     The    cover 
is     plowed     under     early    the     following     spring 
(74a).     The    cover    checks   the    growth   of    the 
fruit    plants,    prevents    the    land    from   washing 
and    puddling,   holds    the    rainfall    until    it    can 
soak  into   the    soil,  causes   the    soil    to    dry  out 
early  in    spring,   lessens    injury  from    frost. 

117.  Weeds    often    make    good    cover-crops. 
The    chief    difficulty    is    that    they    cannot    be 
relied   upon   to  appear  when  and  where  and   in 
the   quantity  wanted,   and    some    kinds   may  be 
difficult   to   eradicate   (lOla). 


3.  Direct  Applications 
3a.  Stable  manures 

118.  The  best  direct  application  which  the 
farmer  can  make  to  his  land,  from  his  home 
resources,  is  stable  manure.  It  supplies  both 
humus  and  plant -food. 


82 

119.  The    value    of    manure    depends    upon 

(a)  the  kind  of  animal  from  which  it  is  made, 

(b)  the    feed   which    the    animal     receives,    (c) 
the   amount  of   bedding  or   litter  which   it   con- 
tains,   (d)    the    way    in   which     it     is     kept     or 
housed. 

120.  Some   of   the  most  valuable  constituents 
of     manure     are     soluble,     and     are,    therefore, 
removed      by     water.        Consequently,     manures 
should    be    housed   to    protect    them    from   rain. 
A    covered     barn -yard     is    the     ideal     place     in 
which   to    keep   manures,   for  they  are  not  only 
protected     from    weather,    but,    if    the     manure 
contains    enough    straw  or    litter,   it    makes    an 
agreeable    bed    upon   which    stock    may   tramp, 
and  it  absorbs  the  liquids  ;    and  if  it  is   spread 
in  the  yard  as  it  is  made  and  well   tramped   by 
stock,  its   tendency  to   heat   is  reduced.     In  six 
months'    exposure    to    weather,   manures   usually 
lose  more  than  half  of  their  available  plant-food. 

121.  The    more     completely    rotted    the    ma- 
nure,   the    sooner    does     it     become    thoroughly 
incorporated    with    the    soil ;    and    the    decay  of 
the  coarse  parts   renders    their  plant- food   more 
available.     If   the    rotting   proceeds  under  cover 
or  in  a  compost   pile  (34&,  Fig.  5),  there  should 
be  little  loss  of  plant-food  by  leaching. 

122.  If     manure     cannot     be      sheltered,     it 
should     be     spread     on    the     fields    as    fast    as 


ENRICHING    THE     SOIL  — FARM     RESOURCES  83 

made.  There  is  practically  no  loss  of  plant- 
food  from  evaporation,  and  the  part  which 
leaches  is  caught  by  the  soil.  Loose  or  strawy 
manure  which  lies  too  long  on  the  ground, 
however,  may  become  so  dry  that  it  does  not 
quickly  decay  when  plowed  under ;  if  applied 
very  thick,  it  prevents  heavy  soils  from  drying 
out,  and  thereby  delays  spring  work. 

36.   Other  dressings 

123.  Muck    is    often   useful    as    a    source 'of 
Iminus,    but   it   generally  contains    little    directly 
available   plant -food.      It   is   generally  improved 
if   dug   and   allowed   to  weather  some    time   be- 
fore it  is   put  on  the    land.     Dry  muck   is  very 
useful    in    stables    and    covered    barn -yards    to 
absorb  the    liquids  ;     and   its    value   as   a  dress- 
ing for  the  land  is  thereby  increased. 

124.  Peat,    when    decomposed    and    soil -like, 
becomes  muck.     Peat,  therefore,  is  less  valuable 
than    muck    as    a    dressing    until    it    has    been 
thoroughly     broken     up     and     decomposed     by 
weathering   or   composting. 

125.  Marl    is    usually   not    rich    in    available 
plant- food,   but,  like   muck,  it  may  be  valuable 
to    improve    the   physical    condition   of   the   soil. 
But  only  in  exceptional  cases  is  it  worth   haul- 
ing great  distances. 

126.  Such      materials     as     sawdust,     straw, 


84  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

leaves,  pomace,  are  generally  more  valuable 
for  the  improving  of  the  texture  of  the  soil 
than  for  the  direct  addition  of  plant -food.  If 
the  soil  is  loose,  dry  and  leachy,  or  if  it  is 
very  hard,  compact  and  retentive,  these  ma- 
terials may  benefit  it.  To  determine  the  value 
of  such  materials  in  plant -food,  one  must  con- 
sult tables  of  their  composition  in  books  ;  and 
the  more  thoroughly  they  are  rotted,  the  more 
available  are  their  constituents. 


SUGGESTIONS    ON   CHAPTER    V 

108a.  "The  proportion  of  roots  to  tops  [in  clovers]  varies 
widely.  The  medium  red  clover,  one  year  from  seeding,  gives 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  roots  to  tops  than  clover  two  years 
from  seeding.  Red  clover  which  produces  two  tons  per  acre 
may  be  expected  to  furnish  potentially  to  the  soil,  after  the 
first  cutting,  in  roots  and  stubble,  40  to  GO  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
20  to  25  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  30  to  50  pounds  of 
potash.  Thirty  bushels  of  wheat  *  *  *  and  2,700  pounds 
of  straw,  would  remove  approximately  46  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
20  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  26  pounds  of  potash." — 
Roberts,  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  345, 

109a.  Accessible  discussions  of  green -manuring  are  to  be 
found  in  Chap,  xiv.,  "Fertility  of  the  Land;"  pp.  117-123,  Voor- 
hees'  "Fertilizers."  Cover-crops  in  relation  to  fruit-culture  are 
discussed  in  pp.  184-202  of  Bailey's  "Principles  of  Fruit-Grow- 
ing." and  in  other  books  and  recent  bulletins. 

Ilia.  Intensive  farming  is  "high -culture"  farming.  It  is 
farming  on  a  comparatively  small  scale,  when  the  land  is  kept 
constantly  in  productive  crop,  with  the  best  of  tillage,  and  the 
free  use  of  manures  and  fertilizers,  The  land  is  forced  to  its 


Fig.  30.    A  covered  barn-yard,  in  which  manure  is  saved  and  the  stock 
protected. 


Fig.  31.  A  ponitnon  type  of  barn-yard.  The  stains  on  the  barn  show  where  the 
manure  was  baptized  from  the  eaves  :  and  the  mud-puddle  shows  where 
much  of  the  fertility  has  gone. 


86 


THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


utmost  capacity.  Market -garden  ing  and  forcing-bouse  culture 
are  examples. 

lllfe.  Extensive  farming  is  general  husbandry,  especially 
when  done  on  a  large  scale  and  without  forceful  methods  of 
tillage  and  cropping.  Grain-farming  and  stock-raising  are  ex- 
amples. 

120a.  A  covered  barn-yard  is  shown  in  Fig.  30.  This  is  a 
basement  under  the  farm  barn  at  Cornell  University.  This 
affords  a  protected  place  in  which  the  stock  may  exercise  in 
cold  weather  ;  and  if  the  cattle  are  dehorned,  they  remain  to- 


Fig.  '1'2.  A  handy  and  economical  stable,  with  cattle-racks,  a  manure  trough 
(behind  -which  is  a  walk),  and  a  small  shed  at  the  rear,  with  a  hollowed 
cement  bottom,  for  the  storage  of  the  manure. 

gether  peaceably.  Such  an  area  not  only  saves  the  manure,  but 
it  adds  to  the  welfare  and  value  of  the  stock.  Compare  this 
with  the  commoner  type  of  yard,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31.  A 
handy  and  efficient  arrangement  for  the  saving  of  manure  is 
shown  in  Fig.  32.  For  general  discussions  on  farm  manures 
and  methods  of  saving  and  handling  them,  consult  Roberts, 
"Fertility  of  the  Land,"  Chapters  vi.,  vii.,  viii.,  ix. 

126a.  Muck,  marl,  and  other  materials  of  this  class  are 
considered  in  Voorhees'  "Fertilizers,"  Chapter  vi.,  and  in  Roberts' 
"Fertility,  Chapter  xiii. ;"  and  the  appendix  to  the  latter  work  has 
full  tables  of  the  fertilizer  constituents  of  very  many  substances. 


CHAPTER   VI 

ENRICHING   THE    SOIL— COMMERCIAL 
RESOURCES 

G.  W.  GAVANAUGH 

1.     The   Elements   in    the    Soil 

127.  Chemically,    a    fertile   soil    is    one   con- 
taining  an    abundance    of    available   plant- food. 
The    substances    which    are    necessary    for    the 
growth   and  welfare  of   plants  are    called   plant- 
foods.      There  are  about  ten  essential   elements 
of    plant- food.     Six  of    these    are   derived   from 
the     mineral     part     of      the     soil, — phosphorus 
sulfur,    iron,    calcium,    magnesium    and    potas- 
sium.     Nitrogen    is    contained     in     the    humus. 
Water     supplies      the     hydrogen     and     oxygen 
to  the  roots.     Carbon  comes  from  the  air.     For- 
tunately, the  greater  part  of  the  plant-food   ele- 
ments of  the  soil  always  exist  in  quantities  more 
than   sufficient   to    supply  any  possible   need   of 
the  plants. 

128.  Three  of   these   elements   are  often   de- 
ficient in  the  soil ;    or,  if  present,  they  may  not 

(87) 


88  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

be  in  condition  to  be  used  by  the  plant.  These 
are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium.  A 
fourth  plant -food  is  also  sometimes  deficient, — 
calcium.  These  four  substances,  therefore,  are 
the  ones  which  the  farmer  needs  to  consider 
when  fertilizing  the  land. 

129.  Before  the   plant  can  use  any  of    these 
elements   of    plant- food    in    the    soil,  they    must 
become    dissolved    in   the    soil    water,    which   is 
absorbed  by  roots. 

130.  While   all   plants   need    certain   elements 
for  their  growth,  they  cannot  use  the  elements 
in   their    elemental    or   uncombined    forms.      In 
fact,  the  elements   as   such  do   not  exist   in  the 
soil.     They  are  united  with   each  other  in  com- 
pounds, and   it  is   by  absorbing  the  compounds 
that   the   plants    obtain   the   necessary  elements. 
Phosphorus   is    essential    to    the    life   of    plants, 
but   it   is    never   used  by  them   in   the  form    of 
elemental    phosphorus.      It    is    always    in    some 
compound,  as  phosphoric  acid  or  a  phosphate. 

131.  When    the     compounds     exist     in     such 
condition    as    to     be    readily    absorbed     by    the 
roots,    the     soil    is     said    to     contain     available 
plant -food.     Often  there   is   sufficient  plant -food 
present,   but   not    in   condition   to    be   taken   up 
by  the   plants.     It   is   then  said   to    be   unavail- 
able, or  to  be  locked  up.    Availability  is  deter- 
mined  by  two  factors :    by  the  substance   being 


ENRICHING    SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  89 

soluble  in  soil  water;   by  its  being  of  such  com- 
position that  the  plant  will  use  it. 

132.  One  problem   for  the   agriculturist  is  to 
secure   available    plant- food,    and    to    determine 
whether   it   is    better   to   unlock   the   plant- food 
in   the  soil   by   means   of   tillage,   or   to   supply 
the  elements  in  some  manure  or  fertilizer. 

133.  Barn  manures  are  not  always  to  be  had, 
and  they  are  variable  in  composition.     It  is  often 
advisable,  therefore,  to  substitute  commercial  or 
concentrated  fertilizers,  in  which  the  constituents 
are  of   known   amounts  and  often  readily  avail- 
able.    Barn   manures    are  bulky.     Even  manure 
of    cattle     from    a     covered     yard     contains    as 
high  as   70  or  75  per  cent  of  water,   and   usu- 
ally  less    than    1    per   cent    of    nitrogen,    phos- 
phoric   acid   or  potash.     If   it  were   not   for   its 
influence  in  improving  the  physical  effects  of  the 
soil,    stable    manure    would    have    comparatively 
little  value. 

2.  Nitrogen 

134.  Nitrogen  is  the  most  important  element 
which  the  farmer  adds  to  his  soil.     It  comprises 
part    of   all    green  and    woody  parts   of   plants. 
It   seems    to    be    the    element    most    intimately 
associated  with   rapid  growth  in  plants.     Plants 
that  feed   excessively  on   nitrogen  tend   to   pro- 


90  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

duce  large  leaves  and  stalks,  while  the  hardi- 
ness may  suffer.  On  the  other  hand,  insuf- 
ficient nitrogen  is  almost  certain  to  result  in 
dwarfing  and  loss  of  vitality.  It  must  receive 
attention,  also,  because  one  form,  the  nitrate, 
tends  to  leach  from  the  soil. 

135.  In  a   pure   or  elemental    state,   nitrogen 
is    an    invisible    gas.      It    comprises    four -fifths 
of    the    atmosphere.      And    yet,   with    this  vast 
amount  about  us,  it  is  the  most   expensive  ele- 
ment  of   plant -food.      The   nitrogen   of   the   air 
can  not  be  used  by  the  great  majority  of  plants, 
because  it  is  in  what  is  known  as  a  free  or  un- 
combined    state.      The    sources    of    nitrogen    for 
plants     are     ammonia,     nitrates,     or     in      some 
compound       formed   by  animals  or  plants  (that 
is,  in   some  organic  form). 

136.  If   the   gas    nitrogen   be   combined  with 
the    gas    hydrogen,    there   will    be    formed    am- 
monia   (N  H3) .       From     this     the     plants     can 
derive,     indirectly,     their     supply    of     nitrogen. 
Another   compound   of   nitrogen   is    called   nitric 
acid,  which  is  composed  of  nitrogen,  hydrogen, 
and    oxygen    (H  N  Os) .      When     some     mineral 
element    takes    the    place    of    the    hydrogen    in 
this    combination,    the     compound    is    called    a 
nitrate  :     as   Na  N  Os,  nitrate   of  soda  ;    K  N  03, 
nitrate  of   potash,  or   saltpetre.     Both   ammonia 
and    nitrates    are    found    in    the    soil    in    small 


ENRICHING    SOIL— COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  91 

quantities,  but  only  in  a  fertile  soil  in   sufficient 
amounts    to   supply  the  plant  with  nitrogen. 

137.  Humus      is    the     great     storehouse     of 
nitrogen.     Humus    does    not   dissolve    in   water, 
and    so    serves    as    a     means    of    retaining    the 
nitrogen  against   leaching.     But   if   the  nitrogen 
remained   always    in    the    humus,    it   would    not 
be  available  to  plants,  since   to   be    absorbed   it 
must    dissolve    in    the    soil-water.      Fortunately 
there   is   a  process  whereby  the   nitrogen    in   the 
insoluble  humus   is  made  to  be   available.     This 
process    is   the  work   of   germs    or  micro-organ- 
isms   (,35,    35a).     These    germs    are    of     several 
kinds.      One   kind  works   upon    the   humus    and 
changes    its   nitrogen    into    ammonia,    and    other 
kinds    change    the    ammonia    into     nitric     acid. 
This     process     of    changing    nitrogen     into    the 
form    of    nitric    acid    or   nitrate    is    called    nitri- 
fica*lou.      It    is    probable    tiiat    nitrogen    enters 
the    plant    chiefly    in    form    of    nitrate,   so   that 
all  other  forms  of   nitrogen  must  undergo  nitri- 
fication, or  be  nitrified,  before  they  are  of  use. 
Since  tillage  promotes  the  activities  of  the  micro- 
organisms  (35,  52,  89),  it  thereby  increases  the 
supply  of  available  nitrogen. 

138.  It  has   been  stated  (135)  that  the  great 
quantity  of   nitrogen    in    the    atmosphere    is    not 
available    to    most    plants,    because    it   is  not  in 
a  combined    state.      There    are    certain    plants., 


92  THE     PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

however,  which  have  the  power  of  drawing 
upon  this  supply  for  their  nitrogen.  They  are 
the  leguminous  plants,  and  include  the  clovers, 
peas  and  beans  (110).  These  plants  have  knobs 
or  nodules  growing  upon  their  roots.  These 
nodules  are  the  homes  of  germs;  and  these 
germs  seize  upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and 
turn  it  over  to  the  plant.  This  process  is 
known  as  the  fixation  of  nitrogen.  Then  if 
these  crops  are  plowed  under  they  not  only 
add  humus  from  their  vegetable  substance, 
but  nitrogen  which  has  been  gathered  from 
the  air. 

139.  The  nitrogen  added  in  green -crops  or 
humus  must  go  through  the  process  of  nitri- 
fication before  it  is  available  to  the  plant. 
Sometimes  this  process  does  not  furnish  nitric 
acid  fast  enough  to  supply  rapidly  growing 
plants,  and  then  a  form  of  available  nitrogen 
may  be  added  direct.  This  can  be  done  by 
using  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulfate  of  ammonia. 
The  former  is  mined  in  Chile  ;  the  latter  is  a 
substance  obtained  from  gas  works.  The  am- 
monia formed  from  the  nitrogen  that  was_  in  the 
coal  or  wood  is  caught  in  sulfuric  acid  (generally 
known  as  oil  of  vitriol).  These  two  substances, 
together  with  dried  blood  from  the  slaughter 
houses,  constitute  the  best  commercial  sources 
of  nitrogen. 


ENRICHING     SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  93 

3.  Phosphoric  Acid 

140.  Phosphoric  acid  is,  next  to  nitrogen,  the 
most    important    plant -food     to    be    applied    to 
land,   and   of  the  mineral  constituents  it  is  the 
most  important.     It  is  a  constituent  of  all  soils, 
though  the  amount  may  be  variable.     It  is  par- 
ticularly needed   to   insure   hardiness    and   fruit- 
fulness.     Consequently  the  different   grain  crops 
are   large   users   of   phosphoric    acid.     A   liberal 
supply  of  available  phosphoric  acid  is  necessary 
to    young    plants    to    give    them    strength    and 
vigor. 

141.  As  humus  decays  or  decomposes  in  the 
soil   it   not   only   supplies   nitrogen,    but   it   also 
makes    some   of    the   phosphoric   acid   available. 
Hence  when  the   humus  diminishes  in   the   soil, 
there  is  often  a  corresponding  lack  of  available 
phosphoric  acid.    Barn  manures  make  available 
a  considerable  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid.    Soils 
which    contain   a   fair  supply  of   humus   do  not 
necessarily    have    enough    of    phosphoric    acid. 
To  such  soils   phosphoric  acid   may  be  supplied 
in  an  available  form  in  acid  phosphates. 

142.  Pure  phosphoric  acid  (P2O5),  however,  is 
not  used  directly  as  a  plant -food,  but  only  when 
it   is    combined   with   some   other   substance,    as 
lime.      One  of   the  chief   sources  of   phosphoric 
acid    is    bone,  in  which    it  is  found  combined 


94  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

with  lime.  The  animals  obtained  the  phosphoric 
acid  from  the  plants  they  ate,  which  in  their 
turn  secured  it  from  the  soil.  Another  great 
source  are  the  deposits  of  phosphatic  rocks  in 
the  Carolinas,  Florida  and  Tennessee.  In  these 
rocks  the  phosphoric  acid  and  lime  are  com- 
bined in  the  same  way  as  in  bones. 

143.  Bones  and  phosphoric  rocks  do  not  dis- 
solve in  water,  and   consequently  the  phosphoric 
acid    they   contain    is    not    easily    absorbed    by 
roots.      These    materials,    therefore,    are       com- 
monly  treated    with    acid,     to    make    the    phos- 
phoric   acid    soluble ;    and   the   material    is    then 
known   as   an  acid  phosphate. 

144.  In   bones,  one    part  of    phosphoric   acid 
(PoO-,)    is    combined   with   three    parts    of     lime 
(CaO),  and    can    be    expressed    as    follows: 

Lime  ^  CaO  ^ 

Lime  V  Phosphoric  acid ;    or,  CaO  v  PzOs 
Lime  j  CaO  J 

This  substance  is  tri-  (or  three)  calcic  phos- 
phate, and  is  insoluble.  When  sulfuric  acid  (or 
oil  of  vitriol)  and  water  are  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  bones,  part  of  the  lime  leaves 
the  phosphoric  acid,  and  its  place  is  taken  by 
water.  If  one  part  of  the  lime  is  united  with 
the  sulfuric  acid,  then  there  results  a  sub- 
stance which  can  be  written  thus  : 


ENRICHING     SOIL — COMMEBCIAL     RESOURCES  95 

Water  ~\  H2O  ~\ 

Lime    v  Phosphoric  acid ;  or,  CaO  v  PjOs 
Lime  j  CaO  ) 

This  is  di-  (or  two)  calcic  phosphate.  This  is 
insoluble  in  rain-water,  but  becomes  soluble  in 
the  soil-water. 

145.  If  two  parts  of  the  lime  be  united  with 
sulfuric  acid  and  their  places  be  taken  by  water, 
there  remains  : 

Water  ~\  H2O  ~| 

Water  V  Phosphoric  acid ;  or,  H2O  V  p2O5 
Lime    )  CaO  ) 

This  is  mono-  (or  one)  calcic  phosphate.  This 
is  readily  soluble  in  soil  water,  but  in  the  soil  it 
tends  to  become  insoluble,  or  to  revert  to  the 
dicalcic  form  (and  is  then  said  to  be  "reverted"), 
and  some  of  it  may  eventually  become  tricalcic 
and  unavailable.  The  lime  that  is  removed  by 
the  sulfuric  acid  unites  with  the  sulfuric  acid  to 
form  calcium  sulfate  ;  that  is,  plaster  or  gypsum 
(CaSOO-  The  dicalcic  and  monocalcic  are  the 
forms  that  are  known  as  acid  phosphate,  and 
sold  in  commercial  fertilizers. 

4.  Potash  (potassium  oxide,  K2O) 

146.  Next  to  phosphoric  acid,  potash  is  the 
most  important  mineral  plant -food.     It  is  placed 
after    phosphoric    acid    in    importance    not    be- 


96  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTQRE 

cause  plants  can  better  do  without  it,  but 
because  it  is  usually  more  abundant  in  soils. 
Potash  has  an  important  office  in  the  produc- 
tion of  firm,  woody  tissue  and  of  starch,  and 
it  is  thought  to  be  particularly  needed  by  fruit- 
plants,  potatoes,  and  root  crops.  It  is  gen- 
erally deficient  in  sandy  and  peaty  soils. 

147.  Like   phosphoric    acid,   potash    becomes 
available   with   a    liberal    supply  of    humus    and 
by  good   tillage ;    and   the  potash   in   barn   ma- 
nures is  soluble  and  valuable.     Whenever  wood 
ashes  can  be  cheaply  obtained  they  form  a  valu- 
able   source    of    potash,    for    the    potash    taken 
from  the  soil  by  the  trees  remains  in  the  ashes 
when  the  wood  is   burned. 

148.  Potash    is    found    in   great   deposits    in 
Germany,  very  much   as   common  salt   is   found 
in   the   United    States.     There   it   is    mined   and 
sold.     It  can   be  bought  in  the  form  known  as 
the  muriate    of   potash,  or  more  properly  potas- 
sium  chlorid,  KC1.      Another  form  of   potash  is 
the    sulfate,  K2S04.     The    sulfate   costs   a    little 
more   than  the   other,  because  it   is   made  from 
the   muriate.      For  general   purposes,   the   muri- 
ate   is   recommended   over    the    sulfate    because 
it    is    cheaper ;    but    the   muriate    has   a    dele- 
terious   effect    on    tobacco,    and    it    is    thought 
to   give   less   satisfactory   results   on   sugar-cane 
and   potatoes. 


ENRICHING    SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  97 

5.    Amendments 

149.  Substances   which     contain    only    traces 
of   the  important  or  available    plant- foods    often 
have  a  beneficial  effect   on   soil.     Lime   and  salt 
are  examples.     Though  they  may  not  add  to  the 
soil  any  needed   plant -food,   the   plants    are   en- 
abled by  their   presence   to  utilize  more  of   the 
plant -food   already  in  the   soil.      Such   materials 
are  known  as  amendments  (58). 

150.  It    is  often   difficult    to    decide,   in    any 
particular    case,   just    how    an   amendment    pro- 
duces its  effect.     It  may  be  that  the  mechanical 
condition    of    the    soil    is    improved,    its    water- 
holding  capacity   increased,  its    acidity   or   sour- 
ness neutralized,  or  its  plant- food  unlocked. 

151.  Lime.    Soils  sometimes  become  sour,  and 
may  then   be  unsuitable  for  some  plants.     One 
of  the  reasons  why  plants  do  not  thrive  well  in 
sour  soils  is  that  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  sufficient 
nitrogen  in   the  form    of    nitrates.      The   germs 
which  carry  on  the  process  of   nitrification   are 
unable  to  do  their  work  in  sour  soils.     The  soil 
acid  can  be  neutralized  —  the  soil  sweetened  —  by 
applying  lime  (which  is  calcium  oxide,  CaO). 

152.  Lime   may   be   applied    in   the   form   of 
water- slaked  lime,  such  as  is  obtained  by  adding 
water  to  quick- lime  till  it  crumbles,  or  by  air- 
slaked  lime.     Quick-lime  usually  gives  the  better 


98  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

results,  particularly  when  it  is  desired  to  improve 
the  texture  of  clay  soils  (58,  58a) . 

153.  A  soil  may  be  tested  to  determine  if  it  is 
acid    by   placing   a   piece   of   blue   litmus   paper 
(kept  at  drug  stores)  against  the  moist  soil.     If 
the  paper  reddens  and  remains  so  after  drying,  it 
shows  the  presence  of  an  acid  in  the  soil.     It  is 
best  to  apply  the  paper  not  to  the  top  of  the  soil, 
but  to  the  side  of  a  hole  such  as  would  be  made 
by  inserting  a  spade  and  moving  it  to  and  fro. 

6.    Commercial   Fertilizers 
6a.    What  they  are 

154.  Under  the  name  of  commercial  fertilizers, 
one  can  buy  the  various  forms  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash.     These  elements  may  be 
purchased  singly  or  mixed   in  any  combination. 
A  fertilizer  containing  all  three  is  called  a  com- 
plete manure  or  fertilizer.     In  buying,  one  should 
be  guided  by  the  guaranteed  analysis  and  not  by 
any  particular  name  or  brand. 

155.  The    commercial    value    of    nitrogen    is 
about  three  times  that  of  either  phosphoric  acid 
or  potash,  which  are  approximately  5   cents  per 
pound.     The  prices  of  these  elements  may  vary, 
but  the  following  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of 
the  computing  of  relative  values  of  different  fer- 


ENRICHING    SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  99 

tilizers  (remembering  that  1  per  cent  means  one 
pound  in  a  hundred,  or  twenty  pounds  in  a  ton) : 

No.  1.     GUARANTEED  ANALYSIS 

Nitrogen 1.60  to  2.00  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  available  .  7.00  to  8.00    "       " 

Potash 2.00  to  3.50    "       " 

Cost  per  ton,  $29. 

Multiplying  the  lowest  figure  representing  the 
per  cent  of  the  given  element  by  20,  and  calcu- 
lating the  value  from  the  price  per  pound,  we 
have  in  No.  1  : 

Nitrogen     .    .    .1.60X20=    321bs.@15c.  =  $4  80 

Phosphoric  acid    7    X  20  =  140  lbs.@  5c.  =    700 

Potash    ....      2  X20=   401bs.@  5c.=   2  00 

Commercial  value  per  ton $13  80 

156.    Another  example    of    computation    may 
be  taken  : 

No.  2.     GUARANTEED  ANALYSIS 

Nitrogen 3.30  to    4.00  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  available    .  8.00  to  10.00    "      " 

Potash 7.00  to    8.00    "      " 

Cost  per  ton,  $38. 

Its  value  is  calculated  the  same  as  No.  1: 

Nitrogen    .    .    .3.30X20=   66  lbs.@15c.  =  $9  90 

Phosphoric  acid  8. 00  X  20  =160  lbs.@  5c.=   8  00 

Potash  .    .    .    .  7.00 X  20  =  140  Ibs.@  5c.  =  7  00 

Commercial  value $24  90 


100  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

157.  The    cheapest    fertilizer    is    the    one   in 
which  one   dollar  purchases  the  greatest  amount 
of   plant-food.     In  No.    1,   $29   obtained  $13.80 
worth,    which  is   at  the  rate   of  48  cents  worth 
for   $1.     In    No.   2,    $38    buys    $24.90   worth    of 
plant-food,  or  at  the  rate  of  65    cents  worth  for 
the  dollar.     The  difference  between  the  commer- 
cial value,  as  calculated,  and    the  selling   price, 
is  to    cover    expenses  of   manufacture,    bagging, 
shipping,  commission   fees,  and   profits. 

66.  Advice  as  to  their  use 

158.  We    have    seen   that   plants   must    have 
all  three  of  the  general  fertility  elements — nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid,  potash — in  order  to  thrive. 
It   frequently  occurs,   however,   that   the    soil    is 
rich  enough  in  one  or  two  of  them  ;   and  in  that 
case,  it  is  not  necessary  to  apply  all  of  them. 

159.  If  a  liberal   application  is   made  of  one 
element,  the  plant  must  use  more  of  the  other 
elements  which   are  already  in  the   soil,  in  order 
to  balance  up  its  growth.     It  may  result,  there- 
fore, that  the   addition  of  one  element  exhausts 
the   soil    of    some  other  element.     For  example, 
if  heavy  growth  is  obtained    by  the  addition  of 
nitrogen,    the     plant     may    need     to     draw    so 
heavily  upon   the  stores   of  available  phosphoric 
acid  as  to  deplete  the  soil  of  that  material. 


ENRICHING    SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES        101 

160.  Again,  no  results  can  be  obtained  from 
the   addition    of    one    element    unless    the    other 
two  are  present  in  sufficient  quantity.     In  gen- 
eral,   therefore,    it    is    safer    to    apply   complete 
fertilizers. 

161.  Yet,    in    some    cases,    it    is    unwise    to 
apply  complete   fertilizers.     This    is    particularly 
true  of  the  application  of  nitrogen.     The  growth 
may  already  be    so    heavy  that   the   addition  of 
nitrogen    would    cause    an   overgrowth,    and    yet 
the    plants    may   need    fertilizing.     This    danger 
of    too    much     growth     is     greatest    with     fruit 
plants    (114). 

162.  If  nitrogen  conduces    especially  to    leaf 
growth    (134),    then    it    must    be    the    element 
which   is    most    important    in   the    fertilizing   of 
the  vegetables  which  are  grown  for  their  leaves 
or    succulent    stalks,   as    rhubarb,   cabbage,   let- 
tuce,  spinach,   asparagus ;    and    it   is    also  very 
important  in   the  growing  of  hay  and  succulent 
fodder. 

163.  Nitrogen    leaches    rapidly,    especially    if 
applied  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulfate 
of   ammonia.     It   is,  therefore,  advisable  to   ap- 
ply it  in  the  spring ;    and  when  used  in  liberal 
amounts,  it  should   be  applied  at  intervals,  and 
not  all  at  one  time. 

164.  Phosphoric    acid    and    potash,    even    if 
soluble,  do  not  leach  badly,  as  a  rule,  because 


102  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

they  tend  to  form  insoluble  compounds  with 
soil  constituents.  The  more  vegetable  matter 
a  soil  contains,  the  less  pronounced  is  the 
action  of  leaching.  As  a  rule,  commercial  ferti- 
lizers are  applied  after  the  ground  is  fitted,  and 
then  harrowed  in  or  drilled  in. 

165.  The    amounts    and    kinds    to    apply  are 
determined    by  (a)  the   analysis   of   the  material 
(that    is,    its    richness    in    plant-food),    (&)    its 
cost,  (c)  the  richness   of  the   soil   in  plant-food, 

(d)  the    tilth   or   texture   of   the    soil   (60,  49a), 

(e)  the  kind  of  crop,   (f)  the  kind  of  farming, 
whether  intensive  or  extensive  (111«,  lllfr).     It 
follows,     therefore,    that    the    mere    analysis    of 
the    soil    and    the    plant    cannot   determine  what 
fertilizer    it  is   most   profitable   to   use. 

166.  What    fertilizers    to    use,    and     how    to 
apply    them,    are    subjects    which    are    discussed 
in    bulletins    and    books    by  many  authors ;    but 
even  after  reading  all  the  literature,  the  farmer 
must  experiment  with  his  own  land  and  his  own 
crops,  to  determine  just  what  materials  are  most 
profitable   for  his  use.     In   other  words,  the   ad- 
vice as  to   fertilizers   is   more  valuable   in  teach- 
ing   a    man   principles,   in    suggesting   means    of 
experimenting,    and    in    designating    the    proba- 
bilities of   any  line  of  action,  than   in  specifying 
just  what  fertilizers  one  shall  use.     An  area  on 
one    side    of    a    field    may   be    devoted    to    such 


ENRICHING     SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES         103 

experiment,  on  different  parts  of  which  the 
various  elements  and  combinations  of  them 
may  be  applied. 

SUGGESTIONS   ON   CHAPTER    VI 

127o.  An  element  is  a  simple  substance.  It  is  not  made  by  a 
combination  of  any  other  substances,  and  by  no  known  means  can 
it  be  separated  into  any  other  substances.  Sulfur,  nitrogen,  and 
phosphorus  are  elements.  The  known  elements  number  about  70. 

1276.  The  elements  are  represented  by  one  or  more  letters, 
called  symbols.  Usually  the  first  letter  of  the  name  is  employed. 
Thus,  nitrogen  is  designated  by  N,  phosphorus  by  P,  sulfur  by 
S.  When  the  names  of  different  elements  begin  with  the  same 
letter,  as  sulfur  and  sodium,  this  rule  cannot  be  followed.  In 
such  cases,  letters  from  the  name  of  one  of  the  elements  in  some 
other  language  are  used.  Thus,  Na  is  tised  for  sodium,  natrium 
being  the  Latin  of  sodium.  Similarly,  P  might  represent  phos- 
phorus or  potassium  ;  hence  K  is  used  for  potassium,  which  in 
Latin  is  kalium. 

130«.  Compounds  result  from  the  chemical  union  (30c)  of  two 
or  more  elements.  The  compound  may  not  resemble  in  any  way 
any  of  the  elements  contained  in  it.  The  proportions  in  which 
elements  unite  vary,  and  the  same  elements  may  be  made  to 
unite  in  different  proportions.  The  same  compound  always  con- 
tains the  elements  in  exactly  the  same  proportion. 

130fc.  Compounds  are  represented  by  writing  together  the 
symbols  of  the  elements  composing  them,  together  with  figures 
to  represent  the  proportions.  Thus,  potash,  K2O,  is  a  compound 
of  two  parts  of  potassium  and  one  of  oxygen,  O.  Lime,  CaO,  is 
composed  of  the  elements  calcium,  Ca,  and  oxygen,  and  its 
chemical  name  is  calcium  oxid.  Other  compounds  are  nitrate  of 
soda,  NaNOa  ;  ammonia,  NH3  (H  representing  the  element  hy- 
drogen); water,  H2O  ;  sulfurie  acid,  HoSCu  ;  ammonium  nitrate, 
NH4NO3  ;  ammonium  sulfate  (NH4)2SO4  (the  NH4  being  taken 
twice);  starch,  C«H|0O5  (C;  representing  carbon);  salt,  Na(.'l 
(01  standing  for  chlorin). 


104  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

130c.  Phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  not  elements,  but  com- 
pounds. The  elemental  forms  are  phosphorus  and  potassium.  It 
is  customary,  however,  to  speak  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  as  the  elements  of  plant-food.  Here  the  word  ele- 
ment is  not  used  in  the  chemical  sense,  but  rather  as  the  sim- 
plest form  in  which  plants  can  use  these  substances. 

131a.  Roots  have  the  power  of  dissolving  plant-food  (30, 
30a),  but  this  is  only  a  process  of  making  it  soluble.  Substances 
which  are  not  soluble  in  rain  water  may  be  soluble  in  soil  water, 
for  the  water  in  the  soil  contains  various  acids.  Even  when  a 
substance  is  in  solution,  the  plant  has  the  power  of  rejecting  it  ; 
it  is  thereby  not  available  as  plant-food.  For  example,  nitrogen 
in  the  form  of  nitrites  (as  nitrite  of  soda,  NaNO2)  is  not  availa- 
ble, although  it  is  soluble  ;  but  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrates 
(as  nitrate  of  soda,  NaNOs)  is  available.  Charcoal  is  not  availa- 
ble plant-food,  although  it  is  carbon,  and  carbon  enters  more 
largely  than  any  other  element  into  plant  tissue.  But  when  the 
charcoal  is  burned,  it  forms  a  gas  called  carbon  dioxid  or  carbonic 
acid  (CO2),  from  which  the  plant  can  get  carbon. 

]40rt.  The  black  or  blue  head  of  an  old-fashioned  sulfur 
match  is  a  paste  containing  the  element  phosphorus,  P.  On 
igniting  the  match,  this  phosphorus  unites  with  the  element 
oxygen,  O,  in  the  air  to  form  a  small  white  cloud,  which  is  the 
compound  phosphorus  pentoxid.  Its  symbol  is  P^Os,  which 
means  that  it  is  made  by  the  union  of  two  parts  of  phosphorus 
and  five  parts  of  oxygen.  Phosphorus  pentoxid  is  known  in 
agriculture  as  phosphoric  acid. 

143a.  The  term  superphosphate  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
same  sense  as  acid  phosphate  ;  that  is,  to  designate  available 
phosphates,  or  those  which  are  made  up  of  monocalcic  and 
dicalcic  phosphates.  A  fertilizer  containing  available  phosphoric 
aoid,  but  no  nitrogen  or  potash,  is  often  called  a  plain  superphos- 
phate. Complete  fertilizers  contain  all  three  of  the  important 
plant-foods. 

153a.  Moisten  a  strip  of  blue  litmus  paper  with  vinegar  or 
sour  milk,  and  note  the  change  in  color.  Then  add  to  the  milk 
or  vinegar  some  lime  water  till  it  no  longer  tastes  sour,  and 


ENRICHING    SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES         105 

again  try  the  litmus  paper.  It  will  no  longer  turn  red.  Try 
some  air-slaked  lime  in  the  same  way.  Make  the  same  test 
with  plaster  of  paris  or  gypsum,  which  is  sulfate  of  lime.  This 
will  not  neutralize  the  acid  or  sweeten  the  milk  or  vinegar. 
Make  the  same  test  with  salt  and  sugar.  A  substance  which 
turns  blue  litmus  red  is  acid  ;  one  which  turns  red  litmus  blue 
is  alkaline. 

166«.  The  experiment  stations  of  most  of  the  older  states 
issue  bulletins  of  advice  on  the  use  of  fertilizers,  and  these 
should  be  studied.  In  many  states  there  are  laws  designed  to 
protect  the  purchaser  of  fertilizers  ;  and  fertilizer  control  sta- 
tions are  established  to  analyze  the  different  brands  and  to 
publish  the  results.  The  general  subject  of  fertilizers  is  pre- 
sented in  Voorhees'  book  on  "Fertilizers."  Good  advice  will 
also  be  found  in  Chapter  xii.  of  Roberts'  "Fertility." 

1666.  Every  school  should  have  bottles  of  the  leading  ferti- 
lizer chemicals  for  exhibition  ;  as  muriate  and  sulfate  of  potash, 
kainit,  gypsum  or  plaster,  bone  and  rock  phosphates,  bone- 
black,  dried  blood,  nitrate  of  soda,  sulfate  of  ammonia,  air- 
slaked  lime,  and  quick-lime.  These  can  be  obtained  from 
dealers  in  fertilizers. 


PABT  II 
THE    PLANT,   AND    CROPS 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE    OFFICES    OF   THE    PLANT 

1.   The  Plant  and  the  Crop 

167.  In  an  agricultural   sense,   the  plant,    as 
a  representative  of  the  vegetable   kingdom,  has 
four  general  types  of  uses,  or  fulfils  four  offices: 
it  aids   in  the  formation,   maintenance   and   im- 
provement  of    soils ;     it    influences    the    climate 
and   habitableness   of   the   earth ;    it  is   the   ulti- 
mate source  of  food  of  domestic  animals ;  it,  or 
its  products,  may  be  of  intrinsic  value  to  man. 

168.  When    plants    are    grown    in    quantity, 
they,  or  their  products,  constitute  a  crop.     This 
crop  may  be  the  produce  of  a  bench  of  carna- 
tions, a  field  of  barley,  an  orchard  of  peaches, 
a    plantation    of    tomatoes,    or    a    forest.      The 
crop    may    be    grown    for   its    own    or    intrinsic 
value,  or  for  its  use  in   preparing  the  land  for 
other  crops. 

(106) 


THE     OFFICES    OP    THE     PLANT  107 

2.    The  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Soil 

169.  The    plant  is   a  soil    maker.     It   breaks 
down  the   rock    by  mechanical  force  and  by  dis- 
solving  some    of   its    constituents   (30,  306) .     It 
fills  bogs  and   lagoons  and  extends  the   margins 
of   lakes    and    seas    (32,  32a). 

170.  The  plant  is  a  soil  improver.     It  opens 
and    loosens    hard    soils,    especially   if,    like    the 
clover,  it   has    a   tap-root,  which  it   sends   deep 
into    the    earth.     It    fills    and    binds    loose    and 
leachy    soils.     When    it    decays    it    adds    humus 
(33,  34,  73,  74). 

171.  The  plant  is   a   soil    protector.     It   pre- 
vents   the    washing   of    soils,    and    protects    the 
sands    of    dunes    and    shores    from    the    winds. 
It    holds    the    rainfall    until    it    soaks    into   the 
soil    (70,  116). 

3.    The  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Climate 

172.  The  plant  influences   the  moisture   sup- 
ply :    by  modifying   the    distribution    of   precipi- 
tation ;     by   causing    the    retention    of    the    pre- 
cipitation ;    by  lessening  evaporation ;  by  adding 
moisture  to  the  atmosphere. 

173.  The   plant    influences   the    habitableness 
of  the  earth  by  other  means :    as  by  modifying 
extremes     of    temperature ;    by   affording    wind- 


108  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

breaks ;     by  supplying    shade  ;    by    contributing 
to  the  beauty  and  variety  of  the  landscape. 

4.    The  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Animal  Life 

174.  Nearly  all  domestic  animals  live  directly 
on  plants.     These  are  herbivorous   animals,  such 
as   cattle,   horses,   sheep.      But    even    the    flesh 
which  carnivorous    animals   eat— as   dogs,  cats — 
is    directly  or    indirectly  derived    from   herbivo- 
rous  animals  ;    for  "all  flesh  is  grass." 

175.  The  round  of  life  begins  and  ends  with 
the    soil.      The    soil    contributes   to   feeding   the 
plant,  the  plant  feeds  the   animal,  and  the   ani- 
mal passes  at  last  into  the  soil.     In  this  round, 
there  is  no   creation   of  elements,   and  no   loss  ; 
but   there    are    endless    combinations,   and    these 
combinations    break    up    and    pass    away.      To 
raise   the  plant,  therefore,  is  the  primary  effort 
in  agriculture. 

5.   The  Plant  has  Intrinsic  Value  to  Man 

5a.  As  articles  of  food  or  beverage 

176.  Plants  or  plant -products  may  be  staples 
or   necessaries,  as  wheat,  rice,  potatoes,  beans  ; 
semi -staples,    or    articles    of    very   general    and 
common    use,    as    apples,    oranges,    buckwheat ; 


THE    OFFICES    OF    THE    PLANT  109 

luxuries  or  accessories,  as  quinces,  cauliflowers, 
glass-house  vegetables ;  condiments,  as  spices ; 
beverage  products,  as  cider,  wine. 

177.  Plants    or   plant -products   may  be   food 
for   animals,    as    grains,    ground    feed,    fodders, 
forage   or   field   pasturage. 

56.  As  articles  used  in  the  arts 

178.  Plants    may  afford   textiles  or  fibers,  as 
cotton,    hemp,    flax,    jute ;    wood,    lumber     and 
timber  ;    medicines,  as  quinine,  opium,  ginger. 

5c.  As  articles  or  objects  to  gratify  cesthetic  tastes 

179.  Plants    are    the     source    of     most    per- 
fumery,  and   of    many   dyes   and   paints. 

180.  Plants    are    themselves   useful    as   orna- 
mental  subjects.     They  may  be  grown  for  their 
effects  as  individuals  or  single  specimens,  as  a 
tree,  a  shrub,  or  a  plant  in  a  pot ;    or  for  their 
effects  in  masses  in  the  landscape. 

181.  Plants   are   useful    for    their    flowers   or 
ornamental   fruits.     The  flowers  may  be  desired 
in  mass  effects,  as  single  specimen  plants,  or  as 
cut -flowers.     The    growing   of    plants   for   their 
effects    as    individuals    or     for    cut -flowers     is 
floriculture ;  the  growing  of  them  for  their  com- 
bined  or   mass   effects   in   the   open  (or  on  the 
lawn)  is  landscape  horticulture  (9). 


110 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


SUGGESTIONS    ON    CHAPTER    VII 

170a.    Tap-roots  (Fig.  33)  extend  the  benefits  of  root  action 
to  great  depths.      They  drain,   aerate  and   comminute  the  soil; 


Fig.  33.    The  deep  root-system  of 
red  clover. 


Fig.  34.    The  shallow  root-system 
of  orchard  grass. 


and  the  plant-food  which  they  bring  from  the  subsoil  is  left, 
when  the  plant  decays,  in  such  place  and  condition  that  sur- 
face-rooted plants  can  get  it.  With  the  clover,  compare  a 
grass  (Fig.  34). 

.   In   many  countries   definite    efforts  are  made  to   hold 


THE    OFFICES    OF    THE     PLANT  111 

loose  sands  from  drifting  by  winds,  as  along  the  coasts  of  the 
sea.  Sand- loving  plants  with  strong  running  roots  or  root- 
stocks— as  various  grasses  and  sedges — are  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. One  of  the  uses  of  windbreaks  is  to  lessen  the  drifting 
of  sands.  Bluffs  and  railway  embankments  are  often  held  from 
caving  and  washing  by  means  of  strong-rooted  plants. 

172rt.  Large  forests  probably  have  some  influence  in  dis- 
tributing the  rainfall,  the  precipitation  tending  to  be  greatest 
near  the  forest  areas.  By  some  persons  it  is  thought  that  the 
total  precipitation  is  increased  by  forests,  but  this  point  is  in 
dispute.  The  off-flow  or  outflow  from  forest-covered,  or  from 
any  plant-covered,  lands  is  more  gradual  than  from  bare  lands ; 
thus  floods  are  more  frequent  and  more  serious  the  more  com- 
pletely the  forests  are  removed.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  floods 
on  the  Ohio  and  other  rivers. 

1726.  Plants  lessen  evaporation  chiefly  in  the  capacity  of 
shelter-belts.  Windbreaks  check  evaporation  from  adjacent  lands 
(see  King,  "The  Soil,"  pp.  204-206);  and  this  is  one  valuable 
effect  of  windbreaks  for  fruit-plantations  in  dry  climates  (see 
Bailey,  "Principles  of  Fruit -Growing,"  pp.  48  51.)  Forest  areas 
contribute  some  of  their  moisture  to  the  atmosphere  of  con- 
tiguous areas  ;  and  plants  give  off  moisture  from  their  grow- 
ing parts. 

173a.  For  a  full  discussion  of  windbreaks,  see  "Principles 
of  Fruit-Growing,"  pp.  47-57,  62-92. 


CHAPTEK  VIII 
HOW   THE   PLANT   LIVES 


B.  M.  DVGGAR 


1.  The  Plant  Activities 

182.  The   plant    is   a  very  dependent    struc- 
ture: it  must  be  supplied  with  water  and  certain 
soluble   salts  from  the   soil,  oxygen  and   carbon 
dioxid  from  the  air,  in  addition  to  sunlight  and 
a   certain    amount    of    heat.     When   these   con- 
ditions   are     fulfilled, — somewhat    as    a     plant's 
ancestors    have    been    accustomed    to    them. — 
the   plant   must   grow,   provided    no    extraneous 
diseases    or   accidents    overtake   it. 

183.  A    growing    plant    is   influenced    by   all 
of  the  external   conditions    about  it, — it   is    sen- 
sitive,   or     manifests    irritability.       In    studying 
growth  processes,  we  must  remember  that  these 
processes   are    occurring   in    a    highly  responsive 
living   object,  an   object  with   both  inexplainable 
internal    forces    and    with  processes    most  favor- 
able for  chemical  and  physical  study.     To  study 
how    a   plant   lives,  one    must    consider    the   im- 
portant  factors    of   growth,    actual    growth   phe- 

(112) 


HOW    THE    PLANT    LIVES  113 

nomena,  and    certain    other   conditions  to  which 
growth  is  sensitive. 


2.    The  Factors  of  Growth 
2a.    Water  in  the  plant 

184.  The    rigidity    or    stiffness    of    any   herb 
or   succulent    part   is    largely   dependent    on    its 
water  content.     If  a  succulent  branch  is  severed, 
it   soon    loses   its    water    by  evaporation,  and   it 
becomes   flaccid,  or   wilted.     The   proper   exten- 
sion, or    turgidity,  of    the   cells    of    plants    with 
water  is  necessary  for  active  growth.     The  pas- 
sage of  the  soil  water  into  the  plant,  and  there- 
after its  transfer  from  living  cell  to  living  cell, 
is  accomplished  by  the  process  of  osmosis,  which 
is  the  diffusion  of   liquids    through    membranes. 
Much    of   this    water  eventually   reaches    certain 
conducting  parts,  or  bundles. 

185.  Surrounding  each  rootlet  for  some  dis- 
tance back  of  the  tip  is  an  enveloping  growth  of 
delicate     root-hairs.      These     hairs     are    single, 
tubular   cells,   the   outgrowth    of    single    cells   in 
the  outer  layer  of  the  root.     Each  one  contains 
within   its    walls,   as  do    all    active    cells,   living 
matter   called    protoplasm,    along   with   cell-sap. 
In  the  soil  these  delicate   hairs  push  readily  in 
amongst  the  soil  particles,  covering  an   immense 


114  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

amount  of  space.  Owing  to  the  denser  cell -sap 
of  the  root -hairs  these  hairs  absorb  water  by 
osmosis.  There  are  in  solution  in  the  soil 
water  minute  quantities  of  food  substances,  and 
these  are  absorbed  independently  of  the  relative 
amounts  present.  The  absorptive  activity,  or 
pull,  of  the  root- hairs  is  so  great  that  water  may 
be  extracted  from  a  soil  apparently  dry. 

186.  Plants    contain   much  water;    but  it  re- 
quires   oven    temperatures,    about    222°    F.,    to 
drive    out   all   the   water   from    plant  substance. 
The   total  water   in   some  plants,  as  determined 
by  the  chemist,  is  as  follows: 

Dry  clover  seed 6.4  per  cent. 

Dry  beans 12.5    "       " 

Green  apple  twigs 50.0    "       " 

Potato  tubers 80.0    "      " 

Green  clover  tops 85.0     "       " 

187.  Water    is   absorbed    in   greater   quantit}7 
than  can   actually  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  living  plant;  and  the  surplus  water  is  thrown 
off  by  a  process  of  evaporation  known  as  tran- 
spiration.    The  water  is   rapidly  transpired  from 
certain  plant  surfaces,  especially  from  the  leaves 
and  green  stems.     The  water  current  is  import- 
ant;   for  example,  it  promptly  distributes  foods. 

188.  Leaves  are  provided  with  thousands  of 
minute  pores  in  the  epidermis,  connecting  with 
the    delicate   tissues    within.      These    pores,    or 


HOW    THE    PLANT    LIVES  115 

stomata,  are  especially  abundant  on  the  under 
surfaces  of  most  leaves.  With  changes  in  the 
water  content  of  the  plant,  these  stomata  open 
or  close,  to  a  degree  facilitating  or  inhibiting 
transpiration.  Like  evaporation,  transpiration  is 
hastened  by  higher  temperatures,  dry  air,  wind, 
and  the  movements  of  the  plant.  On  a  very 
hot  day,  or  with  insufficient  soil  moisture,  a 
plant  may  wilt,  due  to  the  fact  that  all  of  the 
facilities  for  checking  transpiration  fail  to  keep 
the  balance  between  root  absorption  and  tran- 
spiration. The  plant  gives  off  more  water  than 
it  takes  up;  therefore,  it  wilts. 

189.  The  absorptive  activity  of  the  roots  gives 
rise  to  a   sap-    or  root -pressure  which  tends  to 
force    the    current   upward.     In   fact,  the    lifting 
power   of    transpiration,   osmosis,   root- pressure, 
and  other  forces   cause  the  crude  sap  to  ascend 
through  the  woody  bundles  of  the  plant;    and  by 
means  of   these    bundles   absorbed   solutions   are 
carried   upward   through    all    parts    of    root   and 
stem,  and  through  the  leaf -stalk,  veins  and  vein- 
lets  to  all  parts  of  the  leaf. 

26.    Soluble  salts  from  the  soil 

190.  Along  with  the  soil   water  absorbed  by 
the  roots,  minute  quantities  of  the  various  min- 
eral salts  necessary  for  plant  growth  are  taken 
iii.     These  salts  are  in  solution.     In  the  plant, 


116  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

these  solutions  become  a  part  of  the  ascending 
sap,  and  they  are  diffused  to  all  parts  where 
assimilation  goes  on.  Plants  possess  a  certain 
selective  absorption,  yet  soil  elements  not  utilized 
by  the  plant  are  also  absorbed  in  greater  or 
less  quantity  depending  on  whether  or  not  de- 
posited in  inert  form.  Carbonic  acid,  and  per- 
haps other  substances  excreted  by  the  root,  aid 
in  dissolving  some  of  the  mineral  salts  (30) . 

191.  Various    substances    are    taken  in   with 
the    soil   water.     Sodium    and    potassium  nitrate 
(nitre),  calcium  phosphate  (phosphate  of  lime), 
and  potassium  sulfate  are  well-known  ingredients 
of  fertilizers.     Chemical  analysis  and  experiments 
show  that  from  these  and  allied  salts  the  plant 
obtains  from  the  soil  such  necessary  elements  as 
nitrogen,    potassium,    phosphorus,   calcium,    and 
sulfur.     In  addition,  plants  also  secure  from  the 
soil  traces  of  iron,  and  whatever  magnesium,  sili- 
con, and  other  mineral  elements  maybe  necessary. 

192.  When  a  plant  is  burned  in   air,  the  ash 
contains  all  of  the  above-named  elements  except 
the  nitrogen  and  a  part  of  the  sulfur  and  phos- 
phorus.    Nitrogen,  one  of  the  most  important  of 
plant- foods,  can   be   used   chiefly  in  the  form  of 
nitrates,  except  in  the  case  of  leguminous  plants 
(110,  138) ,  in  which  it  is  also  taken  from  the  air  in 
some  obscure  way  by  bacteria  of  the  root  tubercles. 


HOW    THE    PLANT    LIVES  117 

2c.    Oxygen 

193.  Oxygen  is  essential  to  all  of  the  life  pro- 
cesses in  the  plant,  as  well  as  to  the  animal.     For 
perfect  germination  oxygen  is  required,  and  this 
gas  diffuses  into  and  is  used  by  all  living  or  grow- 
ing plant   organs.     The   stomata   of   leaves   and 
shoots    are    mechanisms    insuring    an     adequate 
supply  for  these  parts.     Entering  these  stomata, 
it  is  readily  diffused  throughout  the  neighboring 
cells  and  tissues. 

194.  Oxygen  is  then  constantly  "absorbed," 
and  associated  with  this  absorption  is  the  giving 
off    of    carbon    dioxid.      This    appropriation    of 
oxygen  and  escape  of  carbon  dioxid  are  results 
of  respiration,  a   process   equivalent   in   its    pur- 
pose and  results  to  respiration  in  animals.    Young 
growing  plants  absorb  an  amount  of  oxygen  about 
equal   to   their   volume,  in   from   twenty -four   to 
thirty- six  hours.     Germinating  seeds  absorb  oxy- 
gen, and  give  off  ordinarily  about  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  carbon  dioxid. 

195.  Germinating  seeds,  opening  flower  buds, 
parts  of  plants  that  have  been  injured,  and  cer- 
tain organs  in   which  decay  is  imminent,  respire 
more  rapidly  than  other  parts.     Respiration  prac- 
tically represents  molecular  change   and  the  re- 
lease of  energy  in  the  living  substance. 

196.  Oxygen    is    also    taken    in    through    the 
roots.     Land  plants,  whose  roots  are  deprived  of 


118  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

their  air  by  too  much  water,  are  soon  suffocated. 
This  is  especially  noticeable  in  a  field  of  Indian 
corn  or  maize  which  has  been  overflowed ;  and  it 
is  also  a  condition  frequently  met  with  in  those 
greenhouses  where  an  abundant  use  of  water  is 
the  first  rule.  Many  plants  which  have  become 
accustomed  to  boggy  regions,  and  many  green- 
house plants,  send  up  to  the  surface  numerous 
root  formations  in  response  to  a  need  of  fresh 
air,  or  oxygen. 

2d.    Carbon  dioxid  and  sunlight 

197.  The  element  that  is  present  in  greatest 
amount   in   plants    is    carbon.     This    material   is 
derived  in  green  plants  from  the  carbon  dioxid 
(or  carbonic  acid  gas)  of  the  air. 

198.  In  order  to   become   plant-food,  the  car- 
bon dioxid  of  the  air  first  diffuses  into  the  leaves ; 
then  its  utilization   depends   on  the  green  color- 
ing matter  of  leaves, — or  the   chlorophyll, — and 
on    sunlight.      The   chlorophyll   absorbs   some   of 
the    energy   of    sunlight,  and    by   means    of   the 
energy  thus    provided,  there    is    effected   a  rear- 
rangement  of   the    atoms    of   carbon  dioxid   and 
water,    such   that   sugar,   and   ultimately  starch, 
may  be  produced   and  some   oxygen  is  set  free. 
This  process  of  the  formation  of  plant- food  from 
carbon    dioxid   and    water,   with    the    consequent 
giving   off   of   oxygen,  is   photosynthesis    (some- 


HOW     THE     PLANT    LIVES  119 

times  known  as  carbon  assimilation).  It  is  in 
its  results  the  reverse  of  respiration,  in  which 
oxygen  is  taken  in  and  carbon  dioxid  given  off. 

199.  During  the   day  a  much  greater  amount 
of  oxygen  is  set  free  as  a  result  of  photosynthesis 
than  that  used  in  respiration,  so  that  a  surplus 
of  oxygen  actually  diffuses  into  the  air,  and  plants 
are  said  to  purify  the  air.     At  night,  no  photo- 
synthesis goes  on,  and  the   chief  end-product  of 
respiration,  carbon  dioxid,  is  given  off,  and  may 
be  demonstrated  by  experiment. 

2e.   Heat,  or  a  definite  temperature 

200.  Heat  increases  the  absorptive  activity  of 
the  roots,  the  rate  of  transpiration,  the  amount  of 
respiration,  and  the  products  of  photosynthesis. 

201.  A  more  or  less   definite   degree   of  heat 
is  necessary  for  all  living  processes.     As  a   rule, 
seeds  will  not   germinate   at   the  freezing  point, 
and  all  growth  is  suspended  at  that  temperature. 
Plants  grow   best  within   a  very  small   range  of 
temperature,   known    as    the   optimum    tempera- 
ture.    As    a  rule,  other  conditions   being  equal, 
plants  of  moist  tropical  regions  are  succulent,  and 
green  tissues  preponderate.     In  the  frigid  regions 
the  softer  green  parts  are  greatly  reduced,  and, 
while  the  woody  part  is  of  less   extent  than   in 
the  temperate  regions,  relatively  it  preponderates. 

202.  Different  plants  are  injured  by  different 


120  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

temperatures.  Such  plants  as  cotton  and  the 
melon  are  killed  by  a  temperature  several  degrees 
above  freezing.  The  living  protoplasm  is  stimu- 
lated to  give  up  its  water,  the  roots  are  chilled 
and  cannot  supply  to  the  leaves  that  water  nec- 
essary to  offset  transpiration,  and,  as  a  result, 
the  leaves  soon  wilt  and  blacken.  On  the  other 
hand,  even  the  green  parts  of  some  plants  will 
withstand  freezing  temperatures.  The  ability  to 
resist  cold  depends  primarily  on  the  response 
of  the  protoplasm,  its  capacity  to  give  up  water  in 
freezing  without  injury,  together  with  the  power 
of  reabsorption  on  thawing. 

3.    The  Processes  of  Growth 

203.  The  starch  that  may  result  from  photo- 
synthesis or  the  use  of  carbon  dioxid  is  stored  in 
the  leaves  during  the  day,  and  at  night  it  may  be 
entirely  removed  and  used  after  being  converted 
into   a   soluble   substance,  sugar.     Some    of   this 
sugar  is  directly  used  in  building  up  more  complex 
compounds  used  in  growth,  and  some  of  it  is  again 
converted  into  starch  and  stored  in  tubers,  stems, 
or  thickened  leaves,  for  future  growth  purposes. 

204.  The    external    evidences    of    growth    are 
changes  in  form  and  size  of  the  different  parts. 
The  internal  evidences  of  growth  are  to  be  seen  in 
the  differentiation  of  the  individual  cells  of  which 


HOW    THE    PLANT    LIVES  121 

the  plant  is  composed, — new  cells  are  made,  and 
others  are  modified  in  size  or  form.  It  is  prob- 
ably impossible  for  a  plant  to  live  without  grow- 
ing ;  but  under  poor  conditions  the  growth  may  be 
so  slight  that  the  plant  is  no  longer  of  any  use 
to  the  farmer. 

205.  The  young  stems  of  many  plants  elongate 
throughout    the    entire    length    of    the    growing 
part.     But  the  lower  part  soon  reaches  the  limit 
of  its  growth,  the   rear  internode — or   space   be- 
tween the  joints — ceases  to  elongate,  and  further 
growth  in  length  proceeds  only  in  the  newer  parts 
above.     That  is,  while  there   is   an  elongation  or 
stretching    of    the    shoot    itself,    this    elongation 
gradually  lessens    below,  so    that   the   region    of 
most  rapid  growth   is  constantly  in  the  freshest 
and  softest  part  of  the   shoot.     Notice  that  the 
distance    between    the   joints   in    growing   shoots 
tends  for  a  time  to  increase. 

206.  The   root  grows  differently.     The  tip  of 
the  growing  root  is  hard,  being  protected  by  what 
is  known  as  a  root -cap.     Growth  in  length  takes 
place  just  behind   this   hard   tip,  not  throughout 
the  length  of  the  growing  part.     The  root,  there- 
fore, is   able  to  push   its  way  around   obstacles. 

207.  In  most  of  our  woody  plants,  increase  in 
diameter  is  effected  by  a  layer  of  growing  tissue, 
the  cambium,  located  just  beneath  the  bark;  and 
every  year  it  gives  rise  to  a  new  layer  of  wood  ou 


122  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

the  outside  of  the  old  wood,  and  to  a  new  layer 
of  bark  on  the  inside  of  the  old  bark.  Thus  the 
heart -wood  is  the  oldest  wood,  and  the  outside 
bark  constantly  breaking  off  is  the  oldest  bark. 
The  interior  wood  takes  less  and  less  part  in  the 
activities  of  the  plant,  and  the  heart -wood  of 
trees  is  nearly  useless  except  as  a  support  to 
the  plant. 

4.  Irritability 

208.  Growing  parts  are  sensitive  or  responsive. 
This  responsiveness  or  irritability  may  be  called 
forth  by  diverse  external  forces,  and  is  manifest 
in  definite  movements,  in  growth  reactions,  and 
in  complex  internal  changes. 

209.  Some   plants    make    visible    movements, 
and    may    even    be    sensitive    to    shocks.      The 
sensitive -plant    suddenly    closes    its    leaves    and 
droops    when    touched  ;     the    leaves    of    sun -dew 
and  other  insectivorous  plants   close  upon    their 
prey;     and    the    tendril    of    the    gourd   gradually 
bends  around  the  object  it  touches. 

210.  Green  parts  turn  towards  the  light,  and 
assimilation     is     thereby    increased.      Plants    in 
windows  turn  the  broad  surfaces  of  their  leaves 
perpendicular   to    the    incoming    rays    of    light ; 
and  a  seedling  grown  under  a   box   into  which 
light  is  admitted  through  a  single  slit  will  grow 


HOW    THE    PLANT    LIVES  123 

directly  towards  that   slit,   and   even  through  it 
to  the  brighter  light. 

211.  Plants  are  sensitive  to  gravitation.    The 
first  root  of  the  germinating  seed  is  so  sensitive 
to   gravity  that    it   ordinarily  grows    downward, 
wherever  it    may   be  and   whatever    may  be   its 
position.     On  the  other  hand,  the  first  shoot  is 
oppositely  affected   by  gravity,   and   if   a  potted 
seedling    is    placed    horizontally    the  stem    soon 
directs  itself   upward:     While   its  general    tend- 
ency   is    downward,    the    root     is    nevertheless 
attracted   in   any  direction    by   the    presence   of 
water. 

212.  The  reactions  of  plants  to  their  environ- 
ments or  surroundings  may  cause  the  plants  to 
vary,  or  to  assume  new  forms  or  characteristics; 
and   these   new  features    may  be  of   use  to  the 
farmer.     Thus,  with  more    light,   the    better  are 
the  roses  or  carnations   grown  under  glass;   the 
richer  the   soil,  the  stronger  is  the  growth  ;  the 
higher  the  altitude  or  latitude,  the  greater  is  the 
proportion  of  dwarf  plants. 

SUGGESTIONS    O.V    CHAPTER    VIII 

182o.  A  salt  is  the  substance  formed  from  the  union  of  an  acid 
with  some  inorganic  substance  or  base.  The  salt  may  be  neutral, 
—  neither  acid  nor  alkaline.  Thus  sulfuric  acid  and  lime  form 
the  salt,  sulfate  of  lime  or  gypsum;  nitric  acid  and  caustic  soda 
form  the  salt  nitrate  of  soda;  muriatic  (hydrochloric)  acid  and 


124  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

caustic  potash  form  muriate  of  potash  ;  muriate  acid  and  caustic  soda 
form  muriate  of  soda,  which  is  commonly  known  as  salt, — that  is, 
it  is  common  salt. 

184a.  From  a  potato  tuber  which  has  lain  in  the  air  until 
somewhat  wilted,  cut  circular  segments  about  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  or  less  in  thickness.  Place  some  of  these  pieces  in  water, 
and  others  in  strong  salt  solution.  In  a  short  time  those  in 

water  become  more  rigid,  while 
those  in  strong  salt  water  become 
flaccid.  The  cell-sap  of  the  po- 
tato, containing  some  salts  and 
sugars  in  solution,  is  a  denser 
solution  than  the  water,  and  the 
flow  of  water  is  inward  to  the 
denser  solution;  hence  the  pieces 
absorb  water.  Of  those  pieces  in 
strong  salt  solution  the  flow  of 
water  is  outward,  and  the  potato 
segments  lose  some  of  their  water 
and  become  flaccid.  See  Atkin- 
son's "Elementary  Botany,"  pp. 

13-18. 
Fig.  35.     Root-hairs,  enlarged. 

185a.  A  cross-section  of  a  root- 
let in  Fig.  35  shows  the  root  hairs.  These  hairs  are  seen  to  be 
prolongations  of  the  outer  or  epidermal  cells. 

1856.  By  germinating  a  bean,  pumpkin  seed,  or  wheat  in 
moss,  or  between  folds  of  moist  thick  cloth,  the  root-hairs  may 
be  observed.  Fig.  36  shows  the  fringe  of  hairs  on  such  a  seed- 
ling ;  and  Fig.  37  shows  how  the  root-hairs  attach  the  soil 
particles  to  the  root.  For  a  longer  account  of  root -structures 
and  root-action,  compare  Sorauer,  "Physiology  of  Plants  for  the 
Use  of  Gardeners,"  pp.  4-7. 

186a.  Any  one  who  has  handled  both  green  and  dry  fodder 
has  a  general  idea  of  how  much  water  there  may  be  in  plants. 
Why  do  apples  and  grapes  and  cabbages  shrivel  after  they  are 
picked  f 

188a.    A  single   epidermal  pore  is   a  stoma  or  stomate.     The 


HOW    THE    PLANT    LIVES 


125 


plural  is  stomata  or  stomates.  Fig.  38  shows  a  fragment  of  leaf 
in  cross -section,  a  being  a  stoma  opening  out  on  the  lower  sur- 
face. Looking  down  upon  the 
peeled-off  epidermis  of  the  lower 
surface,  stomata  are  seen  at  Fig.  39. 
188fe.  Cut  off  a  leafy  branch  of 
any  herb,  insert  the  stem  through 
a  perforated  cork  into  a  bottle  of 
water,  and  then  place  the  whole 
under  a  bell-glass.  Note  how  soon 
the  water  vapor  thrown  off  condenses 
upon  the  glass.  Compare  Fig.  10, 
page  58. 

188c.    The  rate  of  tran- 
spiration from  a  single  leaf 
may  be  accurately  observed 
as    follows  :       A    large    U- 
shaped    glass   tube   is  fillei 
with  water,  and  into  one  end 
of   this    tube    is  inserted    a 
perforated    cork    bearing   a 
small  glass  tube  or  capillary 
arm,  bent  at    right    angles. 
In  the  other  end  of  the  U- 
tube  is  fitted  a  cork,  through 
the   perforation   in  which   is 

inserted  the  leaf-stalk,  with  the  stem  reaching 
the  water,  as  shown  in  Fig.  40.  When  this  last 
cork  is  forced  in,  water  will  fill  the  capillary  arm; 
and  the  recession  of  the  water  in  this  arm  to 
supply  that  transpired  shows  the  rate  of  tran- 
spiration. Wax  or  paraffin  should  be  used  to  seal 
around  the  perforations. 

189a.    Root -pressure  or  sap-pressure,  may  be 

made  evident  roughly  by  a  very  simple  experiment. 

,  _  Fig.  87.    How  the 

An  inch  or  so  above  ground,  cut  off  a  stem  of  some      goil  a(jhere«  to 

actively-growing    herbaceous    plant,   as   the   sun-      the  young  root. 


Fig.  36.  The  root-hairs 
as  seen  on  a  dark, 
damp  cloth. 


126 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


flower.  Fit  tightly  over  this  stub  a  few  inches  of  rubber  tubing, 
partially  filling  the  tubing  with  water,  and  into  the  free  end  fit 
closely  a  small  glass  tube  several  feet  long,  supporting  the  tube 
by  a  stake.  In  a  few  hours  water  will  begin  to  rise  in  the  glass 
tube.  This  pressure  in  the  common  nettle  may  sustain  a  column 
of  water  over  ten  feet  in  height,  and  in  the  grape-vine  a  column 
more  than  thirty  feet  in  height.  It  is  inapplicable  for  plants  that 
force  up  only  a  small  volume  of  water  under  high  pressure. 

189fr.  The  sap  ascends  through  the  young  woody  parts, — 
the  sap-wood  in  our  common  trees,  and  not  between  the  bnrk  and 
wood,  as  commonly  supposed.  To  note  the  special  channels 


Fig.  38.     Cross-section  of  a  leaf.     Stoma  at  a. 


Fig.  39.     Four  stomata. 


through  which  sap  ascends,  secure  a  few  joints  of  green  corn, 
a  blade  of  celery,  a  leaf  of  canna,  and  some  woody  branch,  and 
put  the  stem  ends  into  a  tumbler  with  a  solution  of  some  red 
dye  or  stain,  preferably  eosin  or  fuchsin.  Often  in  the  course 
of  a  few  hours  there  is  external  evidence  that  the  colored  liquid 
ascends  through  definite  channels,  at  least  with  the  succulent 
herbs.  Now  cut  off  the  stems  and  note  the  colored  regions, — 
in  the  corn  those  thread-like  groups  of  fibers  so  noticeable  when 
an  old  cornstalk  is  broken  ;  in  the  celery,  likewise,  through  those 
stringy  fibers  known  to  all  who  have  eaten  tough  celery  ;  and 
in  woody  plants,  through  the  layers  of  wood  nearest  the  bark. 

190o.  For  fuller  discussions  of  the  subjects  outlined  in  190 
and  191,  consult  Sorauer,  "Physiology  of  Plants  for  the  Use  of 
Gardeners,"  pp.  30-44,  48-51, 


HOW    THE     PLANT     LIVES 


127 


194a.  Air  in  which  seeds  have  been  germinating  has  suffered 
a  change;  this  can  be  shown  in  the  following  manner:— Fill  a 
large-mouthed  bottle  half  full  with  soaked  beans  or  peas,  add  a 
small  quantity  of  water,  and  cork  it.  After  twenty-four  hours, 
pass  a  lighted  wax  taper  or  waxed  cord  into  the  jar,  and  it  will  be 

extinguished.  Make  the  same 
tests  in  a  jar  of  air,  and  see  that 
the  taper  burns.  This  is  a  striking 
change.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
germination  has  increased  the 
amount  of  carbon  dioxid  and  di- 
minished the  amount  of  oxygen, 


but  other  more  elaborate  experi- 
ments would  be  needed  to  show 
how  we  know  that  these  are  the 
gases  affected. 

196a.  For  a  discussion  of 
the  relation  of  wet  soils  to  oxy- 
gen-absorption, read  Soraner, 
pp.  77-80. 

196/>.  The  "cypress 
knees "  which  project 
from  the  water  in  cypress 
swamps  in  the  South  are 
supposed  to  be  aerating 


Fig.  40.    Means  of  showing  tranapiratii 


organs. 


197a.     If   a   plant    is 

burned  in  tho  air,  the  resulting  ash  is  very  small ;  but  if  burned 
without  free  access  of  air,  as  in  a  charcoal  pit,  there  remains 
a  charred  mass  almost,  as  great  in  volume  as  the  substance 
burned.  This  mass  is  largely  carbon,  a  most  important  element 
in  all  living  matter,  or  protoplasm.  In  combination  with  the 
elements  of  water,  carbon  also  forms  most  of  the  cellular  tissue 
of  plants,  likewise  the  starches  and  the  sugars,  all  of  which  are 
called  carbohydrates.  The  manufacture  of  these  sturch-like  com- 
pounds by  the  appropriation  of  the  carbon  dioxid  of  the  air  is 


128 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


one  of  the  peculiarities  of  green  plants;  and  animals  depend  on 
plants  for  the  preliminary  preparation  of  these  necessary  com- 
pounds. 

198a.    The  word  assimilation  is  sometimes  used  in  this  restricted 

sense  in  plants,  as  defined  in 
198.  In  general  speech  it 
means  the  appropriation  of 
prepared  or  digested  food,  as 
the  assimilation  of  the  food 
by  the  blood,  or  protoplasm. 

198&.  Chlorophyll  is  the 
green  coloring  matter  of 
plants.  It  looks  to  be  in  the 
form  of  minute  grains.  Most 
of  the  cells  in  Fig.  38  contain 
chlorophyll  grains. 

198c.  Plant-food,  in  the 
sense  in  which  the  term  is 
here  used,  is  a  product  of  pho- 
tosynthesis,— sugar,  starch  or 
some  similar  material.  In 
common  speech  the  term  food 
is  used  to  designate  any  ma- 
terial taken  in  and  ultimately 
used  by  the  plant,  as  nitrates, 
potash,  water;  and  a  general 
use  of  the  term  is  so  well 
established  that  it  cannot  be 
overthrown. 

I98d.    For  further   light  on 
assimilation,  compare   Arthur 
and        MacDougal,       "Living 
Plants  and  Their  Properties,"  pp.  145-152. 

199a.    Place    under   a    funnel 
fresh    spring     or    stream    water. 
(Elodea  Canadensis),  and  invert  over  the  end  of  the  funnel  a  test- 
tube  filled  with  water,  as  in  Fig,  41.     In  the  sunlight  bubbles  of 


Fig.  41.  Experiment  to  show  the  giving 
off  of  oxygen. 


in    a   deep  beaker,    containing 
growing    bits    of    water-weed 


HOW    THE    PLANT     LIVES 


129 


gas  will  be  seen  to  rise  and  collect  in  the  tube.  If  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  this  gas  could  be  quickly  collected,  on  testing  it 
with  a  lighted  taper  the  flame  would  be  seen  to  quicken  per- 


K.  42     Opening  of 
a  buu  of  pear. 


Fig.  -i:!.    The  marking  of  the  stein  and 
the  spreading  apart  of  the  marks. 


ceptibly,  indicating  more  oxygen  than  is  contained  in  the  air. 
In  this  case  the  carbon  dioxid  used  is  in  solution  in  the  water. 
The  Elodea  is  common  in  still  ponds. 

20la.  On  the  subject  of  temperature  and  plant  life,  compare 
Bailey,  "The  Survival  of  the  Unlike,"  pp.  44-48,  Chapters  xvii. 
and  xix. ;  and  Chapter  xiii.  of  Gaye's"  Great  World's  Farm." 

202a.  Compare  Arthur  and  MacDougal,  "  Living  Plants  and 
their  Properties,"  pp.  85-98,  for  a  discussion  of  the  influence  of 
cold  in  injuring  plants. 

203a.    To  t«st  for  starch  in  a    potato  tuber  or  other  storage 


130 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  44. 

Marking  the 

root. 


organ,  spread  a  drop  of  tincture  of  iodine  on  the  cut  surface, 
and  the  blue  or  violet  color  indicates  the  presence  of  starch. 
Test  the  laundry  starch. 

2036.    To  determine  that  starch  is  formed 
only  in  the  green  parts  of  leaves,  secure  a 
leaf  variegated  with  white,  like  a  coleus  or  geranium, 
which  has  been  some  hours  in  sunlight.     Place  it  in  hot 
alcohol  until  the  green  color  disappears,  and  then  add  some 
iodine.     The  parts  which  were  green  are  colored  violet- 
brown,  indicating  starch,  but  the  white    parts   are   un- 
colored.       Another    leaf    covered    with    dark    cloth    for 
twenty -four   hours  will  show  little  or  no  starch  any- 
*i  where,   indicating   the  removal    in    darkness  of   the 

starch    formed    in    sunlight. 

204o.  The  opening  bud  of  a 
beech  is  a  good  example  for  ob- 
servation of  growth,  as  it  ex- 
pands from  day  to  day.  The  long  scales  of 
the  winter  bud  become  looser,  and  gradually, 
by  the  elongation  of  parts  between  them, 
the  scales  are  forced  apart,  showing  at  the 
base  of  each  a  minute  leaf  of  perfect  form. 
Daily  the  leaf  increases  in  size,  the  internodes 
or  stem  portions  between  the  leaves  elongate, 
the  scales  fall  away,  and  from  a  bud  of  an 
inch  in  length,  by  elongation  throughout  its 
whole  extent  we  have  a  leafy  twig  of  many 
inches,  with  a  terminal  bud,  and  a  bud  in  the 
axil  of  each  leaf.  The  beginning  of  the  spring 
growth  is  likewise  well  shown  in  the  pear 
bud,  Fig.  42.  Consult  Bailey's  "Lessons  with 
Plants,"  pp.  44-72,  for  fuller  discussions,  with 
many  illustrations,  of  the  opening  of  buds. 

205a.  Mark  a  young  stem,  as  at  A  in  Fig. 
43 ;  but  the  next  day  we  shall  find  that  these  marks  are  farther 
apart  than  when  we  made  them  (B,  Fig.  43).  The  marks  have 
all  raised  themselves  above  the  ground  as  the  plant  has  grown. 


Fig.  4j.    The  root 
grows  in  end  portion. 


HOW    THE    PLANT    LIVES  131 

The  stem,  therefore,  has  grown  throughout  its  length  rather  than 
from  the  end.— Bailey,  "Lessons  with  Plants,"  p.  322. 

206«.  Germinate  a  squash  seed  between  layers  of  blotting-paper 
or  cloth.  When  the  root  has  grown  an  inch  or  two  lay  the  plantlet 
on  a  piece  of  paper.  Then  lay  a  rule  alongside  of  it,  and  make 
a  mark  (with  indelible  ink)  one-quarter  of  an  inch,  or  less,  from 
the  tip,  and  two  or  three  other  marks  at  equal  distances  above 
(Fig.  44).  Now  carefully  replace  the  seed.  Two  days  later, 
examine  it;  we  shall  most  likely  find  a  condition  something  like 
that  in  Fig.  45.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  marks  E,  C,  B,  are  prac- 
tically the  same  distance  apart  as  before,  and  they  are  also  the 
same  distance  from  the  peg,  A  A.  The  point  of  the  root  is  no 
longer  at  D  D,  however,  but  has  moved  on  to  F. — Bailey,  "Lessons 
with  Plants,"  p.  321." 

207a.  We  now  see  that  the  "sap"  of  trees  is  a  very  complex 
substance.  It  is  the  juice  or  liquid  in  the  plant.  The  liquid 
which  first  comes  in  at  the  root  is  water,  with  very  dilute  pro- 
portions of  various  substances.  But  the  sap  also  carries  the 
products  of  assimilation  to  all  parts  of  the  plant,  to  build  up  the 
tissues.  In  common  speech,  the  upward-moving  water,  recently 
taken  in  from  the  soil,  and  known  as  the  "transpiration  stream,'' 
is  often  called  crude  sap;  and  the  liquid  carrying  sugars  and 
other  organic  compounds  is  called  elaborated  sap. 

209a.  See  the  discussions  and  pictures  of  moving  parts  in 
Bailey's  "Lessons  with  Plants,"  pp.  396-406;  also  Barnes'  "Plant 
Life,"  pp.  188-208;  Atkinson's  "Elementary  Botany,"  pp.  82-92; 
Arthur  and  MacDougal's  "Living  Plants,"  Chapters  i.-iv.,  and 
other  botanical  treatises. 


CHAPTEE   IX 

THE    PROPAGATION    OF    PLANTS 
1.    The  Kinds  of  Propagation 

213.  Plants  naturally  propagate   by  two  gen- 
eral   means, —  by    seeds    and   by   buds.     All   the 
modes  of  the  propagating  of  plants  employed  by 
the   farmer   and  gardener   are    but   modifications 
of  these  two  general  types. 

214.  The  farmer  has  three  objects  in  view  in 
the  propagation  of  plants :  to  renew  the  genera- 
tion, or  to  prevent  the  stock  from  dying  out ;  to 
increase  the  number  of  plants ;    to  perpetuate  a 
particular  variety.    Thus,  the  farmer  must  resow 
his  wheat,  or  he  will  lose  the  stock ;   but  he  ex- 
pects to  secure  more  plants  than  were  concerned 
in  the   production  of   the   seed  which   he   sows ; 
and  he  also  expects  to  reap  a  particular  variety, 
as   Diehl   or  Mediterranean. 

215.  Seeds    are    always   able  to   preserve  the 
race    or    stock    and    to    increase   the   number   of 
plants,  but  they  are  not  always  able  to  produce 
the  variety  which  bore  them.     Most  farm  crops 
and   most   garden  vegetables   reproduce   the  va- 

(132) 


THE  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS         133 

riety  from  seeds  ;  but  most  fruits  and  trees  and 
shrubs  do  not,  and  in  such  cases  recourse 
is  had  to  bud  propagation,  as  layers,  cuttings, 
grafts. 

2.    Seedage,  or  Propagation  by   Seeds 
2a.   Requisites  of  germination 

216.  In  order  that  seeds  shall  germinate,  the 
seeds    themselves    must   be   viable    (or  "good"). 
Viability  depends   upon   (a)   the   maturity  of  the 
seeds,    (b)    freshness, — they   shall    not   have  lost 
their  vitality    through    age, —  (c)    the    vigor   and 
general    healthfulness    of    the    plant   which  bore 
the  seeds,  (d)  proper  conditions  of  storage. 

217.  (b)  The    length    of    time   during   which 
seeds  retain  their  vitality  varies  with  the  kind  of 
plant  and   with  the  conditions  under  which  the 
seeds  were    grown.     That  is,  there  is   a  normal 
vitality  and    an    incidental   vitality.     Most    seeds 
germinate   best  when  not  more  than  one  or  two 
years    old,    but    retain    strong   vitality   three   or 
four   years ;    but    some    seeds,   notably  those    of 
onions   and  parsnips,  are  usually  not  safe  after 
a  year  old. 

218.  In    order    that    seeds    shall    germinate, 
they    must    also    have    proper   surrounding   con- 
ditions:  moisture,  free  oxygen  (air),  warmth. 


134  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

219.  The  ideal  condition  of  the  seed-bed,  so 
far  as  water   is    concerned,   is   that  it    shall    be 
moist,  not  wet.     Wet  soil  injures  seeds,  largely 
by  excluding  oxygen.     The  older  and  weaker  the 
seeds,   the    greater   is   the  necessity  for  care   in 
applying     water :     they     should     be     kept     only 
slightly  moist  until   germination  is  well   started. 
The  soaking  of  seeds  starts  the  germinating  pro- 
cesses, but    it    should   not    be    continued    above 
twenty -four    hours,  as    a   rule,    and    should   not 
be  employed  with  very  weak  seeds. 

220.  Oxygen  is  supplied  to  germinating  seeds 
if  sufficient  air  is   allowed  to  reach  them  ;    and 
the  air  reaches  them  if  they  are  not  planted  too 
deep,  nor  kept   too  wet,  nor  the  soil  allowed  to 
"bake."      But    all    these    conditions    are    greatly 
modified  by  the  kind  of  soil. 

221.  For  each  kind  of  seed  there  is  a  certain 
degree  of  warmth  under  which  it  will  germinate 
to  the   best  advantage ;    and   this    is    called   the 
optimum  temperature  for  that    seed.     The  opti- 
mum temperature  is   not  uniform  or  exact,  but 
ranges   through   a   limit  of  five   to   ten   degrees. 
Seeds  of  most  hardy  plants — as  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
lettuce,  cabbage,  and  wild  plants — germinate  best 
in   temperatures    between  45°  and  65°;   those  of 
tender   vegetables    and    conservatory   plants,   be- 
tween 60°    and  80°;     those    of    tropical    plants, 
between  75°  and  95°. 


THE  PROPAGATION  OP  PLANTS         136 

26.   The  raising  of  seedlings 

222.  The  ideal  soil  in  which  to  plant  seeds  is 
loose  and  friable,  does  not  "bake,"  and  is  reten- 
tive   of   moisture.     It    is    neither   hard    clay  nor 
loose  sand. 

223.  The  looser  the  soil,  the  deeper  the  seeds 
may   be  planted,  since   the   plantlets   can    easily 
push    through    the    earth  ;     and    the    deeper   the 
planting  the  more  uniform  is  the  moisture.     For 
seeds  of  medium  size  and  of  strong  germinating 
power, — as  wheat,  cabbage,  apple, — a  quarter  or 
half  inch  is  sufficient  depth.     In  order  to  secure 
moisture   about   the   seeds,   the  earth   should    be 
firmed  or  packed  over  them,  particularly  in  a  dry 
time  ;    but   this   surface  earth    is    moist   because 
water  is   passing   through    it   into  the   air    (103, 
104). 

224.  The    smaller    the    seed,    the    shallower 
should    it   be   sown,   as   a  rule,  and   the  greater 
should  be  the  care  in  sowing.    Very  small  seeds, 
as    those  of    begonia,  should   be  merely  pressed 
into    the    earth,   and    the    surface    is    then    kept 
moist   by  shading,  laying   on   a   paper,  cloth    or 
glass,    or    by    very   careful    watering.      Delicate 
seeds  are  often  sown  on  the  surface  of  well -firmed 
soil,  and  are  then  lightly  covered  by  sifting  soil 
or  dry  moss  over  them.     Keep  them  shaded  until 
germination  is  well  progressed. 


136  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

225.  Seeds    may    regerminate.       That    is,    if 
germination  is  arrested   by  drought,  the  process 
may  be  renewed  when  congenial  conditions  recur, 
even  though  the   young  root  may  be  dried    and 
dead.      This  is  true  of  wheat,  oats,  maize,  pea, 
onion,  buckwheat,  and  other  seeds.     Some  seeds 
have    been    known   to    resume    germination    five 
and  six  times,  even  when  the  rootlet  had  grown 
half  an   inch  or  more   and   the   seeds   had  been 
thoroughly   dried   after   each   regermination. 

226.  Bony  and  nut -like  seeds  must  generally 
be    softened    by    lying    long   in   the   earth ;    and 
the   softening  and   splitting   of    the  coverings   is 
hastened    by    freezing.     Such    seeds    are    peach 
pits,  walnuts,  haws,  and  most  tree  seeds.     Gar- 
deners bury  such  seeds  in  earth  in  the  fall,  and 
plant  them  the  following  spring.     The  seeds  are, 
also,  often  mixed  with   sand,  or  placed  between 
layers   of   sand  in   a  box,  and  if  the   seeds   are 
from    hardy  plants   the    box  of    sand    is    placed 
where  it  will  freeze  throughout  the  winter.     This 
operation  is  known  as   stratification. 

3.    Propagation   by  Buds 
3a.    Why  and  how  bud  propagation  is  used 

227.  When  varieties  do  not  "come  true"  or  do 
not  reproduce  themselves  from  seeds,  it  is  neces- 


THE  PROPAGATION  OP  PLANTS         137 

sary  to  propagate  them  by  means  of  buds.  In 
some  cases,  also,  seeds  are  not  produced  freely, 
and  then  recourse  is  had  to  buds.  In  many 
instances,  too,  as  in  grafting,  quicker  results  are 
obtained  by  bud  propagation  than  by  seed  prop- 
agation. One  means  of  dwarfing  plants  is  to 
graft  them  on  kinds  of  smaller  stature. 

228.  Of  bud  propagation,  there  are  two  gen- 
eral   types, —  that    in    which    the    bud     remains 
attached  to  the  parent  plant  until   it  has  taken 
root,  and  that  in  which  the  bud  is  at  once  sepa- 
rated  from  the   parent  plant.     Examples   of  the 
former  are  layers ;   of  the  latter,  cuttings. 

'3b.    Undetached   buds 

229.  A    layer   is    a    shoot    or   a   root   which, 
while    still    attached    to    the    plant,    is    made    to 
take    root   with    the    intention   that    it    shall    be 
severed,    and   form   an  independent   plant. 

230.  The  layers  are  bent  to  the  ground,  and 
at  one  place  or  joint  are  covered  with  earth ;  at 
this  joint  roots   are   emitted.     Layering  may  be 
performed   in   either  fall   or  spring,  but  the  for- 
mer is  usually  preferred.    The  layers  are  usually 
allowed  to   lie   one   season  before  they  are  sev- 
ered.    Almost  any  plant  which   has   shoots  that 
can   be   bent  to  the  ground  can  be  propagated 
by  layers ;    but  the  best  results  are  obtained  in 
plants  which  have  rattier  soft  wood. 


138  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

3c.  Detached  buds 

231.  Of  propagation  by  detached  buds,  there 
are   two  types, — buds  which  are  inserted   in  the 
soil  or  in  water,  and  those  which  are  inserted  in 
another   plant.      The   former    are    cuttings ;     the 
latter  are  grafts. 

232.  Cuttings   may  be    made    of    soft  or  un- 
ripe wood,  or  of  hard   and  fully  matured  wood. 
Of   the   soft   kinds   are  cuttings    (or    "slips")    of 
geraniums,  fuchsias,  and  the  like.     Of  the  hard 
kinds  are  cuttings  of  grapes  and  currants. 

233.  Soft  cuttings  are  made  of   shoots  which 
are   sufficiently  mature  to    break   or  snap    when 
bent  double.     They  comprise  at  least  one  joint, 
and   sometimes   two   or   three.      The  leaves    are 
removed  from  the  lower  end,  and  if  the  upper 
leaves   are   large   they   may   be   cut    in   two,    or 
sheared,   to   prevent    too    rapid    evaporation.     A 
soil  free  from  vegetable  matter,  as  sand,  is  pref- 
erable.    It   is  generally  necessary  to   shade   the 
cuttings  until  they  are  established. 

234.  Hardwood     or     dormant      cuttings     are 
taken  in  fall  or  winter.     They  usually  comprise 
two  or  more  buds.     They  root  better  if  they  are 
callused    (partially   healed   over   on    the    bottom 
end)    before   they  are   planted :    therefore,    it   is 
customary  to   bury  them    in  sand,   or   to    stand 
them  in  sand,,  in  a  cool  cellar  until  spring.     In 


THE  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS         139 

spring   they  are  set   into  the  ground  up   to  the 
top  bud. 

235.  Single -eye    cuttings — that    is,    one -bud 
cuttings — are    sometimes    employed    when    buds 
are  scarce,  as  in  new  or  rare  plants.     These  are 
usually  started    under   glass.     They  are    planted 
half  an  inch  or  an  inch  deep,  in  an  oblique  or 
horizontal  position. 

236.  Grafting    is    the    operation    of    making 
one   plant,  or  a  part  of    it,  grow   upon   another 
plant.     The   part  which  is   transferred  or   trans- 
planted is    the   cion ;    the   plant  into  which   this 
part  is  transplanted   is   the    stock. 

237.  A  cion  may  contain  one  bud  or  many. 
It   may  be    inserted   in    a   cleft   or   split   in  the 
wood     of    the     stock,    or    it    may    be    inserted 
between   the    bark    and   wood   of   the    stock.     A 
single  bud  which   is   inserted   between  the    bark 
and  wood  is  technically  known  as  a  "  bud,"  and 
the  process  of  inserting  it  is  known  as  budding; 
but  budding  is  only  a  special  kind  of  grafting. 

238.  The    cion   and   stock   unite   because  the 
cambium  of  the  two  grow  together.     This  cam- 
bium is  between  the   bark  and  the  wood   (207) : 
therefore  it  is   important  that  the  inner  face  of 
the  bark  of  the  cion  (or  bud)  be  applied  to  the 
surface  of    the  wood   of    the   stock ;    or,   if    the 
cion  is  inserted  in  a  cleft,  that  the  line  between 
the  bark,  in  the  two,  come  together. 


140  THE     PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

239.  When  the  cion  is  inserted,  the  wounded 
surfaces   must  be  tightly  closed,  to  prevent  the 
parts   from  drying  out.    Whenever  the   stock  is 
cut  off  to  receive  the  cion,  thereby  wounding  the 
wood,  wax   is   used  to    cover  the  wound  ;    when 
only  the  bark  is  raised  to  admit  the  cion  or  bud, 
a  bandage   is   used. 

240.  Grafting    with    hardwood    cions   of    two 
or  more    buds  —  which    is  usually   spoken   of   as 
grafting    proper  —  is   performed    in    spring,    and 
the    cions    are    cut    in  the  winter  and   are   kept 
fresh  and  dormant  (as  in  a  cellar)  until  wanted. 
The    cion    is   made  from  the   wood  of    the   pre- 
vious season's  growth,  of  the  variety  which  it  is 
desired  to  propagate. 

241.  Budding — or  inserting  a  single  bud  un- 
derneath the  bark — may  be  performed  whenever 
the  bark    of  the  stock  will   peel    or  "slip,"  and 
when  mature  buds  can  be  secured.     If  performed 
in    spring,   the    buds    are   cut    in  winter,  as   for 
grafting  proper.      If  performed  in   late    summer 
or  early  fall — and   this   is  the  custom — the   buds 
are  cut  at  the  time,  from  the  season's  growth. 

SUGGESTIONS   ON  CHAPTER  IX 

215a.  It  is  impracticable,  in  this  connection,  to  explain  fully 
why  it  is  that  some  plants  "come  true"  from  seed,  and  others 
(as  apples,  strawberries,  roses)  do  not  ;  but  the  enquirer  will 
find  the  matter  expounded  in  Bailey's  "Plant -Breeding,"  pp. 


THE     PROPAGATION    OF     PLANTS 


141 


88-91 .  The  reason  is  that  in  plants  which  are  habitually  propa- 
gated by  seeds,  as  the  garden  vegetables,  we  are  constantly 
discarding  the  forms  which  do  not  oome  true,  and  are  thereby 
fixing  the  tendency  to  come  true, —  since  only  the  individuals 
which  do  come  true  are  allowed  to  per- 
petuate themselves.  In  plants  which  are 
not  habitually  propagated  by  seeds,  this 
selection  does  not  take  place,  and  the 
tendency  to  come  true  is  not  fixed. 

217o.  The  longest-lived  seeds  are  those 
borne  on  plants  which  reach  their  normal, 
healthy  development.  Those  produced  in 
very  dry  years  are  apt  to  have  low  vitality. 
Seeds  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  and  fairly 
cool  room.  Tables  of  the  longevity  of  garden  seeds  may  be 
found  on  pp.  104-107  of  the  4th  edition  of  "Horticulturist's 
Rule-Book." 


Fig.  46.    Seed-pot,  covered 
•with  glass. 


Fig.  47.    Four  layered  shoots. 

219a.    "Nursery-Book,"    pp.    1-7,    discusses    the    means    sf 
regulating  moisture,  with  illustrations. 

220a.    As  an  experiment,   plant  corn  ft  foot   deep  in  warm, 


142 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


firm  soil.  Run  a  little  stick  or  splinter  down  to  some  of  the 
seeds,  allowing  it  to  remain.  The  air  enters  alongside  the  stick. 
Observe  if  there  is  any  difference  in  germination.  If  not,  try 
it  when  the  soil  is  very  wet. 

224a.  Very  small  seeds  are  often  sown  very  shallow  in  a 
pot,  and  a  pane  of  glass  is  laid  over  the  pot  to  check  evapora- 
tion (Fig.  46).  As  soon  '"""^••v  as  the  plant-lets  ap- 
pear, the  glass  is  re-  r%l;?Afs\^i  moved.  For  de- 

(     '    V  ft(i\^^^    *~S 

tailed  directions  for  the  )Sw£!"   '  sowing     of     seeds, 

see  the  "Nursery-Book,"  ^W^fDi\  pp'  15~25- 

230ff.    An     illustra-       ^^\     if  l^lif^  tion  of  layering  is 
given  in  Fig.  47.    Four 
shoots  are  layered.    One 
shoot,  A,   is  layered  in 


vgto 

Fig.  48.     Coleus  cutting 


Fig.  49.     Cutting  held  by 
tooth-pick  (x%). 


Fig.  50.    One  style  oi 

chrysanthemum 

cutting  (x%). 


two  places,  and  two  plants  will  result.  When  the  layers  have 
taken  root,  the  part  is  severed  and  treated  as  an  independent 
plant.  Honeysuckles,  lilacs,  snowballs,  and  many  common 
bushes  can  be  layered  with  ease.  See  Chapter  iii.,  in  "Nursery- 
Book,"  for  full  discussion. 

233a.  These  green  cuttings  may  be  planted  in  shallow  boxes 
of  sand,  in  coldframes  or  hotbeds,  or  in  the  bench  of  a  glass- 
house. Figs.  48-50  illustrate  the  process. 

234a.  A  grape  cutting  is  shown  in  Fig.  51.  This  is  the 
common  fashion  for  propagating  the  grape  ;  but  new  varieties 
are  often  grown  from  single  eyes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  52.  Consult 


Fig.  52.    Single-eye  grape  cutting 


Fig.  54.     Shield  bud. 


Fig.  53.    Cleft 
grafting. 


Fig.  55.    Bud  entering  matrix 


Fig.  57.   The  bud  in 
Fig.  55  WHS  shoved 
down    until   cov- 
~r  ered  by  the  back, 

Fig.  50.    A  waxed       and  now  tied  with 


stub  ( 


bast. 


144  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

Chapter  iv.  of  ''Nursery -Book,"  for  full  directions  for  making 
and  growing  cuttings. 

238a.  Two  cions  inserted  in  a  cleft  in  the  stock  are  shown  in 
Fig.  53.  The  cambium  layers  come  together  in  the  cion  and 
the  stock.  A  "bud"  cion  is  shown  in  Fig.  54,  and  the  operation 
of  shoving  this  down  between  the  bark  and  wood  of  the  stock 
is  seen  in  Fig.  55. 

239a.  The  waxing  of  a  stock  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  56.  The 
tying  of  a  bud  (by  soft  cord  or  bast)  is  shown  in  Fig.  57. 

240«.  The  common  style  of  grafting  is  suggested  in  Figs.  53 
and  56.  This  is  known  as  cleft -grafting,  from  the  splitting  of 
the  stock.  It  is  the  style  nearly  always  employed  in  orchard 
trees  of  apples  and  pears. 

241a.  Shield -budding  is  the  common  style.  It  is  illustrated 
in  Figs.  54,  55,  57.  The  buds  are  cut  at  the  time  of  the  bud- 
ding, the  leaves  being  at  once  taken  off  to  prevent  evaporation  ; 
but  a  bit  of  the  leaf-stalk  is  usually  left  to  serve  as  a  handle, 
as  seen  in  the  picture.  Peaches,  cherries,  plums,  oranges,  are 
usually  budded. 

2416.  In  all  kinds  of  grafting  and  budding,  the  operator 
must  be  careful  to  select  cions,  or  buds,  from  only  those  varie- 
ties which  he  desires  to  perpetuate.  The  stocks  used  by  nur- 
serymen are  seedlings  ;  but  even  if  the  plant  is  grafted,  it  can 
be  grafted  again,  the  same  as  if  it  were  a  seedling.  In  most 
cases,  a  variety  is  grafted  on  another  plant  of  the  same  general 
kind,  as  a  peach  on  a  peach,  an  apple  on  an  apple,  a  plum  on 
a  plum  ;  but  there  are  cases  in  which  one  kind  or  species  is 
grafted  on  a  different  species:  (a)  to  secure  a  dwarf  plant,  by 
grafting  on  a  slow-growing  root  (as  pear  on  quince),  or  (Z>)  be- 
cause seeds  of  the  given  species  are  rare,  and  a  closely  related 
stock  is  therefore  substituted.  For  extended  accounts  of  bud- 
ding and  grafting,  refer  to  "Nursery-Book,"  Chapter  V, 


CHAPTER  X 
PREPARATION    OF    LAND    FOR   THE    SEED 


/.   P.  ROBERTS 


1.    Factors  Which  Determine  the  Preparation 
of  the  Seed-bed 

242.  Faulty   preparation   of   the   land    is   the 
cause    of     more     failures     than    the    subsequent 
treatment  of  the  crop.     In  field  conditions,  this 
preparation  can  not  be  so  thorough,  or  so  ideal, 
as    in    garden    areas    or   in   glass-houses.      The 
general   condition  of   the  farm  work  dictates  to 
a    great    extent   the    particular    time    when    the 
seed  shall   be  sown  and  the  amount  of  prepara- 
tory   work    which    shall    be    put    on    the    land : 
therefore,  it  is  very  important  that   the   farmer 
fully  understand  what  is  required,  in   order  that 
he  may  make  no  mistakes. 

243.  The  preparation  of  the  land  for  seeding 
should    be    governed    by   two    factors :     by    the 
needs    of    the    particular   plant   which    is    to    be 
grown,   and   by  the   character  of   the  land.     To 
prepare    a    seed-bed    for    any   crop,   the    habits, 
likes    and    dislikes    of    the    plants    should    be 

J  (145) 


146  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

studied.  That  is,  it  is  not  enough  that  the 
land  be  well  prepared:  it  should  have  the  kind 
of  preparation  which  is  demanded  by  the  crop. 

2.    The  Demands  of  the  Plant 

244.  The  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  differs 
with  the  way  in  which  the   plant  is  propagated. 
Some    plants    are    propagated     by    a    piece    or 
part  of  an  underground   stem  or  tuber,    as    the 
potato ;      others     by     a     branch     of    the     aerial 
part,    as    the   willow    or    sugar-cane.     In    all    of 
these    cases,    the    buds    or    eyes    are    surrounded 
with  food  for  immediate  use.     This  stored  food 
gives  them  power  to  send  out  strong  shoots  and 
to  grow  for  some  time  without  having  to  secure 
nourishment  from  the  soil.    But  many  plants  are 
propagated     by     tiny     seeds.     These     start     in 
life  with  little  stored  food,  and,  therefore,  must 
quickly   secure  nourishment  from  the   soil ;    and 
the  land  must,  therefore,  be  very  well  prepared. 
These  seeds  should  be  planted  near  the  surface, 
for   there    will    not    be    strength    enough    in    the 
infant  plant  to  push  its  way  through,  if  planted 
as   deep   as   the  potato. 

245.  Plants     may    change     or     modify    their 
characteristics   to    adapt   themselves    to   changed 
conditions.     The   common  red    clover   is    a    tap- 
rooted   plant,  but  if   it  grows   on    soil  which   is 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED     147 

underlaid  with  wet  clay,  it  tends  to  become 
fibrous -rooted.  Even  long-lived  perennials,  as 
trees,  do  best  when  the  surface  soil  is  well  pre- 
pared to  a  depth  of  ten  to  twelve  inches,  since 
many  feeding  roots  of  trees,  especially  of  young 
ones,  find  nourishment  in  this  prepared  soil. 

246.  Plants  differ  greatly,  however,  in  ability 
to    adapt  themselves   to   unfavorable  conditions. 
Many  common   plants  send   their  tap-roots  into 
the  subsoil  for  two  to  three  feet,  even  if   it   be 
hard,   while   sugar    beets    become  fibrous -rooted, 
and   may  be    pushed  up  and   partly  out  of   the 
ground    if   their  tap-roots   attempt   to   enter  the 
undisturbed     hard     subsoil.      Land     devoted    to 
clover    need    not    necessarily   be    subsoiled   if    it 
be  fairly  free    from    stagnant  water,   while   that 
planted    to    sugar    beets    should    be    subsoiled, 
for    the    reason    that    a    long,    fusiform   root    is 
desired,    all    or   nearly   all    of    which    should    be 
below   the    surface ;    for    that    part   of  the    beet 
which  grows  above  the  ground  is  not  nearly  so 
valuable    for  making   sugar   as  that   part  which 
grows  under  ground. 

247.  Nearly  all   of   the    common    and    quick- 
growing   plants   secure  the   larger   part  of   their 
nourishment  and  moisture  from  the  first,  or  sur- 
face foot  of  soil.     This  being  so,  it  is  seen  how 
necessary  it   is  to  prepare  the  soil    in  the   best 
possible  manner.     If  the  upper  soil   is  not  well 


148  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

prepared,  the  roots  must  search  wide  and   deep 
for  food. 

248.  Most  of  the  smaller  plants  require  but 
about  six  months  in  which  to  grow  and  to  fruit. 
If,  in  order  to  secure  nourishment  and  moisture, 
the  roots  are  obliged   to  descend  into  the  cold, 
hard  subsoil,  where  the  plant-food  is  likely  to  be 
least  available,  neither  growth  nor  fruitage  can 
be  satisfactory.     Those  plants  which  do  not  ma- 
ture until  they  are  five  to  twenty  years  of  age,  as 
fruit   trees,   can   secure  much  nourishment  from 
the  subsoil,   although   they  secure  little   in   any 
one  growing  season.     Then,  too,  trees  must  se- 
cure  a  firm  hold  on  the  land,   or   they  will   be 
prostrated  by  winds.     By  being  obliged  to  send 
many  of  their  roots  into  the  cold,  firm   subsoil 
through  many  generations,   trees  have  probably 
acquired  the  power  of  securing  more  of  the  tough 
or  unavailable  food   of   the  subsoil   than  plants 
which  live  but  one  season. 

249.  Different   plants  require  not  only  to  be 
planted  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  but  at 
different  depths.     They  demand   different   meth- 
ods of   preparation   of  the   surface   soil.      Some 
do   best  when   placed   in   loose,    warm   soil,   as, 
for   instance,   maize  and  sweet   potatoes ;    while 
others    do  best  when  grown   on  fairly  cold  and 
somewhat    compacted    surface    soil,    as     winter 
wheat. 


PREPARATION  OP  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED     149 

3.    The  Preparing  of  the   Seed-bed 

250.  Nearly  all  plants  thrive  best  when  fur- 
nished   with    a   full    and    continuous    supply   of 
moisture.     Fine,   loose  earth,   which    contains    a 
moderate    admixture    of    humus,    is    capable    of 
holding  much   moisture    (73,  74) ;    but    the   soil 
may   be    so    loose   and    light   as   to   admit    too 
rapid  movement  of  air,   in  which  case  the  mois- 
ture will   be  carried  away.     If   the  particles  of 
earth    are    separated    too    widely,    capillarity    is 
weakened.      In   such   cases    the    subsurface   soil 
should  be  slightly  compacted,  while  one  to  three 
inches  of   the  surface  is   left   loose  to  form  an 
earth -mulch,    which    tends    to    prevent    loss    of 
moisture   by  evaporation.     The   particles  of   the 
loose   surface   earth -mulch   should   be  so  widely 
separated  that   the  moisture  can  climb   only  to 
the  bottom  of  it,  for  if  it  comes  to  the  surface 
the  air  will  carry  it  away  (83).    The  earth -mulch 
shades  the  ground  in  which  the  plants  are  grow- 
ing, prevents  the  soil  from  cracking,   and  saves 
moisture. 

251.  The    seed-bed    should    contain    no    free 
water ;    but  it  is  impossible  to  secure  this  con- 
dition at  all  times.     No  serious  harm  may  come 
when  the  soil  is  over -saturated  at  planting  time, 
if   the   free  water   is   quickly   removed.      If   the 
soil   contains  more  water   than   it   can   hold    by 


150  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

capillarity,  the   air   is    driven   out,   and    the    soil 
swells   and  tends  to  become  puddled  (81). 

252.  Many  seeds  will  not  germinate  if  planted 
out  of  season,  or  when  the  soil  is  cool,  no  matter 
how  well  the  seed-bed  is  prepared.     Then,  if  it 
is  desired  to  plant  early,  make  the  land  fine  and 
loose,   for   in   so    doing   the    temperature  of   the 
soil  is  raised.      The  soil  of  a  fine,  porous  seed- 
bed,  resting   on  a   well -drained    subsurface    and 
subsoil,  is   much  warmer  than  one  resting  on  a 
compact,   undrained  foundation.     However,  it  is 
not  wise  to  plant  seeds   out  of  season   or  when 
the  weather  is  unsuitable. 

253.  If  small  seeds  are  covered  with  but  little 
earth,   they  may  fail   to   germinate   for   lack   of 
moisture.     If  covered  with   enough  fine  earth  to 
insure  a  constant  supply  of  moisture,  the  young 
plants  have  a  hard  struggle  to  reach  the  surface. 
Only  a  few  of   the   small    seeds,    as  clover  and 
many  of  those  planted  in  the  kitchen -garden  or 
fiower- garden,   ever   produce   plants.     Sometimes 
the  seeds  are  imperfect,  but  more  often  the  fail- 
ure  to   secure   vigorous   germination   is   due  to  a 
poor  seed-bed  or  to   careless  planting.      To  ob- 
tain better  results,  not  only  prepare  a  fine  seed- 
bed and  sow   at  the  proper  time,    but   compact 
the    soil    immediately    over    the    row    of    seeds. 
This    will    enable    capillary    attraction    to    bring 
moisture  to  the   surface,  or  near  it   (103).     The 


PREPARATION     OF     LAND     FOR     THE     SEED  151 

earth -mulch    should    remain    unpacked    between 
the  rows,  to  conserve  moisture. 

254.  In  some  cases  it  is  impossible  to  secure 
a    proper    seed-bed    for    small    seeds.     For    ex- 
ample,   no    suitable    seed-bed   can    be   procured, 
as    a   rule,   for   clover   seeds    when    sowed   in    a 
growing  tilled  crop.     In  order  to  secure  germina- 
tion, these  seeds  are  sown  on  the  surface  in  early 
spring,    while    the    surface    soil    is    still    porous 
from   winter    freezing.     The    spring    rains    wash 
the   seeds   into  the   little  cracks   in  the  soil   and 
partly  cover  them.     The  weather  being  cool  and 
cloudy  and   the   soil   moist  in  early   spring,   the 
oily  seeds  of  the  clover  are  kept  damp  enough  to 
insure  germination.     If  such  small  seeds  are  sown 
in   summer  or   early  fall,  the    land   is-  rolled  for 
the  purpose  of    supplying  them  with  moisture. 

255.  A   good    field    seed-bed,    then,    can    be 
secured  profitably  only  on    land  which  is  either 
naturally  or   artificially  well    drained,  which   has 
been  well  broken  and  crumbled  by  the  plow,  and 
the  surface  of  which   has   been  thoroughly  fined 
by  the  harrow.     Particular  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  work  heavy  or  clay  lands  when  they  are 
wet.     Neither  should  clay  lands  be  tilled  so  much 
that  they  become  very  dusty,  else  they  will  puddle 
when   the   rains   come.      The  remarks  respecting 
the   proper  tillage  of  the  land  (Chapter  iv.)  will 
apply  here. 


152  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

4.    Application  of  the  Foregoing  Principles 
4a.    Wheat 

256.  Winter  wheat  does  best  when  one  or  two 
inches  of  the  surface  soil  is  fine  and  loose,  and 
the  subsurface  soil  fine  and  fairly  compact. 

257.  To     secure     the     ideal     conditions,    the 
ground  should  be  plowed  some  time  before  sow- 
ing,   and    the    manure     spread     on     the     rough 
surface.     The  ground   is  immediately  harrowed, 
rolled,    and    harrowed    again.     In    one    or    two 
weeks   afterward  it  is   surf  ace -tilled  again,  with 
the    implements    best    suited    to    the    particular 
soil.     All    this    tends    to    divide   and    cover   the 
manure,    compact    the    subsurface    soil,   form    a 
fine    seed-bed,   conserve    moisture,   and    set   free 
pi  ant -food. 

258.  This   treatment  of    the  land  causes  the 
roots    to   be   many   and   fibrous,  and    to   remain 
near     the     surface,    where     the     plant -food     is 
most   abundant   and    available.     If    the   manure 
is  plowed  under  and  the  soil  remains  loose,  the 
roots     are     less     fibrous     and     descend     to     the 
bottom  of    the   furrow.     In   the   spring,  it   often 
freezes    at    night    and    thaws    during    the    day. 
This    tends    to    lift    the    plants    and    to    break 
their    roots.     But  if   the   roots   are  nearly  hori- 
zontal  and   near  the  surface,  they  tend   to  rise 


PREPARATION  OP  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED     153 

and  fall  with  the  freezing  and  thawing,  and  are 
not  seriously  injured. 

259.  As  the  soil   becomes  hot  at  the  surface 
in   June   and    July,    the    shallow    roots    descend 
to    the    subsurface    soil,    where    it    is    cool    and 
where  the  plant- food  was  not   drawn  upon   dur- 
ing the   fall ;    while  the  deep  fall -rooted   plants 
will  be  unable  to  find  new  feeding  ground  when 
they  need   it  most,   just    before    fruiting,   unless 
the  roots   start   toward    the    surface,  which  they 
will  not  do,  for  in  midsummer  the  surface  soil  is 
hard  and  dryish  and  too  warm  for  wheat  roots. 

46.    Maize,  or  Indian   corn 

260.  The  seed-bed  for  maize,  which  is  a  sun- 
plant   and   does   best   when    planted   in   a  warm 
soil,   may  be  prepared  in   a  different  way  from 
that  designed  for  winter  wheat.     Since  maize  is 
planted  in  the  spring,  when  the  soil  is  often  too 
cool  for  this  semi-tropical   plant,  the  subsurface 
soil  should  not  be  as  compact  as  for  wheat.     If 
left    rather   open,    the   warm    spring   rains    pass 
quickly  to  the   subsoil    and  warm  the   soil  (77). 
The  more  open  seed-bed  will  allow  a  freer  circu- 
lation of  warm  air  through  the  soil. 

261.  The    best   machines    for   planting   maize 
are   those    which    deposit    the    seed    one   to   two 
inches  below  the  surface  in  the  fine,  moist  soil, 


154  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

and  compact  the  surface  soil  over  the  seed  by 
means  of  concave  wheels  about  eight  inches 
wide,  while  the  spaces  between  the  rows  are  not 
compacted.  The  maize  may  be  cultivated  and 
harrowed  before  the  plants  appear,  since  the 
rows  may  be  easily  followed  by  the  marks  left  by 
the  concave  roller  wheels.  The  frequent  inter- 
tillage  which  will  be  required  to  destroy  weeds, 
to  preserve  the  earth -mulch,  and  to  set  free 
plant -food,  will  compact  the  subsurface  soil 
quite  as  much  as  is  desirable. 

4c.   Potatoes 

262.  The  potato  should  be  planted  deep  and 
left  with  uncompacted    surface    soil.      The   seed 
potato   contains   about  75   per   cent  of  moisture, 
and    has    a   large    quantity   of    stored    food    for 
nourishing    the    buds    and    sending    up    strong 
shoots.      It  thrives  best   in    a  cool,   moist    soil ; 
and    this    condition    is    secured    if   it    is    planted 
about  four  inches  deep. 

263.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  pota- 
toes   are    enlarged    underground    branches,    and 
that  the    new  tubers  preferably  grow  above   the 
seed -tuber.     If  the   seed -tuber  be  planted   shal- 
low, the  branch   or   stem   above    the   seed   is    so 
short   that  there  is  little  room  for  underground 
stems. 

264.  Usually  potatoes  should  not  be  hiiied  at 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED     155 

the  last  cultivation,  for  at  that  time  the  potatoes 
will  have  begun  to  form  near  the  surface  or  in 
the  subsurface  soil,  according  to  soil  conditions, 
moisture,  climate  and  variety.  Then,  to  throw  a 
mass  of  dirt  on  top  of  these  underground  stems, 
after  they  have  chosen  the  best  position  for 
highest  development,  is  to  force  them  to  adapt 
themselves  to  new  conditions. 

SUGGESTION'S    OX   CHAPTER  X 

242a.  In  this  chapter,  the  word  seed  is  used  in  its  general 
agricultural  seuse,  to  designate  seeds  or  other  parts  (as  tubers) 
which  are  planted  for  field  crops. 

243a.  A  seed-bed  is  the  soil  in  which  the  seed  is  planted  or 
sown.  It  may  be  the  size  of  a  window  box,  a  hotbed  frame,  a 
garden  bed,  or  a  field  of  wheat. 

244«.  The  sprouts  which  appear  on  potatoes  in  cellars  are 
supplied  from  the  nutriment  stored  in  the  tuber.  If  a  winter 
branch  of  a  tree  is  stood  in  water  in  a  warm  room,  leaves  and 
sometimes  flowers  will  appear  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  ;  and 
the  growth  is  made  from  the  nutriment  stored  in  the  twig.  All 
seeds  have  stored  nutriment,  but  the  small  ones  have  very  little, 
and  it  may  be  exhausted  before  the  plantlets  can  get  a  foothold  in 
the  soil.  The  better  and  finer  the  seed-bed,  the  sooner  the  plant - 
let  can  establish  itself. 

250«.  The  subsurface  soil  is  that  lying  just  below  the  surface, 
— between  the  surface  and  the  subsoil.  It  is  the  lower  part  of  the 
soil  which  has  been  loosened  by  the  plow, — that  part  which  is 
below  the  reach  of  the  surface  tilling. 

2306.  The  subsurface  soil  may  be  compacted  by  rolling  (102), 
after  which  the  surface  is  loosened  by  harrowing.  When  land  is 
given  much  surface  tillage,  as  for  wheat,  the  tramping  of  the 
horses  compacts  the  under  soil.  Loose,  sandy  lands  may  be 
plowed  shallow  in  order  to  keep  tho  subsurface  compact  (94). 


Fig  58.    A  well  drained  but  moist 
soil. 


Fig.  59.    A  wet  and  uncongenial 
soil. 


Pig.  60.    A  wheat  plant  properly  grown, 
in  the  fall. 


Fig,  61.     The  result  of  too  loose  soil, 
and   manure  plowed  under. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  LAND  FOR  SEED 


157 


Fig.  62.    The  ideal  condition. 


251a.  The  Fig.  58  shows  a  drained  soil  supplied  with  mois- 
ture held  by  capillarity  in  the  smaller  interstices,  while  the 
larger  channels  have  been  relieved  of  free  water  by  percolation. 
Fig.  59  represents  a  supersaturated  soil  from  which  air  and  heat 
are  largely  excluded.  If 
seeds  remain  for  a  few  days 
in  this  undrained  soil  they 
fail  to  germinate,  and  may 
rot.  Should  stagnant  water 
remain  in  the  soil  for  some 
time  after  the  plants  have 
appeared  above  ground,  they 
will  turn  yellow,  and  may 
perish  (194).  All  this  empha- 
sizes the  necessity  of  prepar- 
ing a  seed-bed  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  the  plant  to  be 
grown,  and  of  maintaining 
such  soil  conditions  as  are 
best  suited  to  the  wants  of 
the  plant  during  its  entire 
period  of  growth. 

253a.  "Care  should  be 
exercised  not  to  sow  very 
small  and  slow-germinating 
seeds,  as  celery,  carrot, 
onion,  in  poorly  prepared 
soil  or  in  land  which  oakes. 
With  such  seeds  it  is  well 

to  sow  seeds  of  radish  or  turnip,  for  these  germinate  quickly 
and  break  the  crust,  and  also  mark  the  row,  so  that  tillage  may 
be  begun  before  the  regular-crop  seeds  are  up." — Bailey,  Gar- 
den-Making, p.  37. 

255a.  The  expense  of  preparing  the  land  can  often  be  ma- 
terially diminished  if  the  land  is  plowed  some  little  time  before  it 
is  planted,  in  such  a  way  that  the  elements  can  act  upon  the  soil 
through  the  process  of  weathering.  In  such  cases,  the  furrow- 


Fig.  63.    The  result  of  shallow  planting. 


158  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 

slice  is  not  laid  flat,  but  left  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five 
degrees,  that  the  soil  may  become  warmed  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  chemical  action  and  the  liberation  of  plant-food.  It 
may  also  serve  to  hasten  the  drying  of  the  land  (95) . 

255ft.  Summer-fallowing  is  often  an  advisable  means  of  pre- 
paring the  seed-bed.  It  consists  of  two  or  more  summer  plow- 
ings  and  several  harrowings,  the  land  remaining  idle.  Fallowed 
lands  are  usually  sown  to  wheat  in  the  fall.  An  ideal  seed-bed 
can  be  secured  by  this  means.  Fallowing  is  to  be  advised  when 
lands  are  very  stony,  stumpy,  hard,  or  when  they  have  become 
foul  with  bad  weeds,  or  have  been  injured  by  plowing  or  ditching 
when  too  wet.  It  is  a  means  of  putting  the  land  right.  The 
better  the  condition  of  the  land,— that  is,  the  better  the  farming, 
— the  less  the  necessity  of  summer-fallowing.  The  practice  is 
becoming  less  common,  largely  because  modern  implements  and 
methods  enable  us  to  handle  the  land  better. 

258a.  The  pictures  will  make  this  reasoning  plain.  Fig.  60 
represents  a  wheat  plant  in  the  fall,  on  properly  handled  land. 
The  roots  are  near  the  surface.  Fig.  61  shows  how  the  roots 
strike  deep  when  manure  is  plowed  under  and  the  soil  is  left 
loose  ;  and  this  plant  stands  less  chances  of  success  than  the 
other. 

263a.  The  accompanying  figures,  which  are  made  directly 
from  nature,  illustrate  the  point  that  deep  planting  in  well-pre- 
pared land  tends  to  result  in  a  deep  and  spreading  hill  of  potatoes 
(Fig.  62^,  whereas  shallow  planting  in  poorly  pi-epared  land  results 
in  a  shallow  and  crowded  hill  (Fig.  63).  The  better  potatoes  may 
be  expected  in  the  former  case. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SUBSEQUENT   CARE   OF   THE   PLANT 

1.  By  Means  of  Tillage 
la.  In  general 

265.  Tillage  is  the  first  consideration  in  the 
care  of  the  plant.  This  is  emphatically  true  in 
the  field;  but  in  the  glass-house  tillage  is  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  in  part  because  the  preparation  of 
the  soil  is  so  thorough. 

26(5.  The  objects  of  tillage,  in  the  care  of  the 
plant  subsequent  to  seeding  or  planting,  are 
three :  (a)  to  supply  plant-food,  by  rendering 
the  soil  constituents  available ;  (b)  to  supply 
moisture  ;  (c)  to  destroy  weeds.  The  first  two 
captions  have  been  discussed  in  Chapters  ii., 
iii.,  iv. 

267.  (c)  Weeds  are  only  incidental  difficul- 
ties. They  are  the  results  of  faulty  management 
of  the  land.  If  the  first  attention  is  given  to  the 
crops  and  the  land,  the  question  of  weeds  will 
largely  take  care  of  itself.  It  is  less  important 
to  know  the  kinds  of  weeds  than  it  is  to  know 
how  to  till  and  to  crop  the  land. 

(169) 


160  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

268.  There  are  four  general  means  of  keeping 
weeds  in  check  :    (a)   by  good  tillage  (101,  lOla) ; 
(b)    by  rotation  of  crops,  by  means  of  which  any 
one    kind  of   weed  is  prevented   from   becoming 
thoroughly  established  ;    (c)    by  complete  occupa- 
tion of  the  land  with  crops, — for  weeds  find  op- 
portunity when  the  ground  is  not  fully  occupied, 
as  in  old  and  thin  meadows  ;     (d)  by  killing  the 
weeds  directly. 

269.  Surface  tillage  should  be  given  as  often 
as  the  ground   becomes    hard,   or  whenever   the 
earth-mulch  needs  repairing   (100).     Under  gen- 
eral conditions,  tilled  crops,  as  maize   and  pota- 
toes, should  be  cultivated  every  ten  days  or  two 
weeks,  particularly  early  in  the  season.     As  soon 
as  low  crops  cover  the  ground,  and  thereby  afford 
a  mulch,  cultivation  may  cease. 

270.  Sowed  crops  can  often  be  tilled  once  or 
twice  to  advantage  very  early  in  the  season,  by 
running  a  fine-toothed  harrow  over  them.     Thus, 
wheat  and  maize  are  now  often  harrowed  in  early 
spring.     The  harrowing  destroys  but  few  plants, 
while  it  loosens  the  soil,  and  conserves  moisture 
before  much  has  been  lost  by  hot  weather.     Har- 
rowing meadows   and  pastures  causes  the  plants 
to  tiller  or   to   stool    out,  and    thereby  to   cover 
the  ground  more  completely  ;    it  also  breaks  the 
old,  hard  roots  and  causes  new  feeders  to  appear, 
thereby  re -invigorating  the  plants. 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       161 

16.  In  fruit  plantations 

271.  Tillage   gives  the   same   results  in   fruit 
plantations  as  with  annual  crops,  and  it  also  has 
particular   advantages  in  such  cases :     it  causes 
the  roots  of  the  trees  or  bushes   to  strike   deep 
into  the  soil  and  thereby  to  find  moisture  in  dry 
times,  and  it  has  a  decided  effect  in  keeping  down 
the  ravages  of  insects  and  the  incursions  of  dis- 
eases by  destroying  breeding-places  and  burying 
diseased  foliage  and  fruit. 

272.  Since  fruit  trees  and  bushes  send  their 
roots  so  deep   into  the  soil,  they  are  better  able 
to  withstand  neglect  of  tillage  than  annual  crops 
are.     There  has  thus  arisen  a  general  belief  that 
orchards  do  best  in   sod ;    but  in  most  cases  of 
successful  sod  orchards  the  trees  thrive  in  spite 
of  the  sod,  not  because  of  it. 

273.  It  is  particularly  important   to  till  fruit 
plantations    early  in    their  life.      Apples    should 
generally  be  tilled  for  at  least  the  first  ten  years. 
The  plants  thereby  get  a   good  start  and  come 
into  bearing  early  ;  and  the  habit  acquired  in  the 
first  years  is    apt   to  continue.      The   treatment 
given  in  the  early  period  usually  determines  the 
success  of  the  fruit  plantation. 

274.  The    fruit    plantation    may   need    tillage 
throughout  all  the  years  of  its  existence,  and,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  it  usually  does  need  it.     But  if 


162  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

the  trees  or  bushes  tend  to  grow  too  fast,  so  that 
they  do  not  bear,  or  become  top-heavy,  or  do  not 
stand  the  winter,  they  may  be  checked  by  put- 
ting the  plantation  in  sod  ;  but  even  then,  the 
sod  is  only  a  temporary  expedient.  If  the  man- 
agement of  the  plantation  has  been  right,  it  is 
doubtful  if  sod  can  ever  be  an  advantage, — or  at 
least  with  none  of  the  common  fruits,  except 
possibly  apples  and  pears. 

275.  All  fruit   plants   start   into  growth  very 
early  in  the  season.     Therefore,  tillage  should  be 
begun   the    moment    the   ground    is    fit '.,    and   it 
should  be  continued  unremittingly  until  the  time 
arrives  for  all  tillage  to  cease. 

276.  The    growth    on    fruit    plants    generally 
ceases    by  midsummer.      Therefore,   tillage   may 
stop  at  midseason  or  early  fall ;    and  at  the  last 
tillage  a  cover-crop  may  be  sown  (109,  114,  116). 
Stopping   the  tillage  early   allows   the  plants  to 
mature  their  grovth,  and  thereby  be  more  likely 
to  escape  winter  injury  ;    and  it  lessens  the  dan- 
ger of  overgrowth.     If  the  trees   are   carrying  a 
heavy    crop,    however,    it   may  be    necessary   to 
continue  the  tillage  in  order  to  supply  the  fruit 
with    moisture,    especially    if    the    land    or    the 
season  is  dry. 

277.  The   tillage  of    fruit-plantations   usually 
consists  of   a  spring   plowing,   followed   by  har- 
rowing.    If   the  land  has    been  well    handled   in 


SUBSEQUENT    CARE    OF    THE    PLANT  163 

the  first  few  years,  deep  and  heavy  plowing  will 
not  be  needed  when  an  orchard  comes  to  ma- 
turity. Light  gang- plows,  or  even  cultivators, 
may  then  be  sufficient  for  the  first  breaking  of 
the  soil  in  spring. 

2.    By   Means  of  Pruning  and    Training 
2a.    Pruning   vs.    training 

278.  Pruning  is  the  removing  of  certain  parts 
of    plants    for  the   purpose    of    augmenting    the 
welfare  of   the  plant   or   to   secure  more,   larger 
or  better  products    (as  better  fruit  or  flowers). 
Training  is  the  trimming  or  shaping  of  the  plant 
into  some  particular  or   desired  form.     Success- 
ful   pinning    depends    upon    principles    of    plant 
growth ;     training    depends    upon    the    personal 
ideal  of  the  pruner. 

279.  Nature   prunes.      In    every   plant,   more 
branches  start  than  can  ever  mature  ;  and  many 
buds    are    suppressed    before    they    have    made 
branches.     Every  tree  top,  if  left  to   itself,   will 
sooner   or    later    contain    many    dead    branches. 
There   is  a  struggle  for  existence  amongst    the 
branches,  and  the  weakest  die. 

26.    The  healing  of  wounds 

280.  Pruning  depends  upon  two  sets  of  fac- 
tors,— upon  the  questions  concerned  in  the  heal- 


164  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

ing  of  wounds  and  the  injury  to  the  plant,  and 
upon  the  general  results  which  it  is  desired  to 
attain.  Knowing  how  wounds  affect  the  plant, 
the  pruner  should  then  have  a  definite  purpose 
in  view  when  he  cuts  a  limb. 

281.  The  proper  healing  of  wounds  depends 
primarily  upon   (a)   the  kind  of   plant    (observe 
that  peach  trees  heal   less  readily  than  apples), 
(b)  the  vigor  of  the  plant,  (c)  the  position  of  the 
wound   on    the    plant    (wounds    on   strong    main 
limbs  heal    better   than   those    on  weak   or  side 
limbs),  (d)  the  length  of  the  stump — the  shorter 
the    stump    the    quicker    the    healing, — (e)    the 
character   of   the   wound    as    to    smoothness    or 
roughness. 

282.  Other     matters     which     determine     the 
proper   healing  of  a   large   wound   are    (/)    the 
healthfulness  of  the  wood,  (g)  the  season  of  the 
year  in  which  the  cut  is  made,  (Ti)  the  protec- 
tion which  the  wound  receives. 

283.  (g)  Other  things  being  the  same,  wounds 
heal  quicker  when  made  in  the  early  part  of  the 
growing  season, — that  is,  in  late  spring ;  but  the 
factors    mentioned    in    281    are   more    important 
than  the  season. 

284.  (h)    Dressings    do    not,    of    themselves, 
hasten   the    healing   of    wounds,    but    they   may 
keep  the  wound  sound  and  healthy  until  it  heals 
of  itself.     A  good  dressing  is  one  which  is  anti- 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       165 

septic  and  durable,  which  affords  mechanical 
protection,  and  which  does  not  of  itself  injure 
the  tissue  of  the  plant. 

2c.    The  principles  of  pruning 

285.  We  prune  (a)  to  modify  the  vigor  of  the 
plant,   (b)  to  produce  larger  and  better  fruits  or 
flowers,   (c)   to   keep    the  plant    within    manage- 
able  shape    and    limits,    (d)    to  make   the   plant 
bear    more    or    bear   less,    (e)  to  remove    super- 
fluous  or    injured  parts,    (/)  to   facilitate  spray- 
ing   and    harvesting,     (g)     to    facilitate    tillage, 
(h)  to  make  the  plant  assume  some  desired  form 
(properly,  training). 

286.  Heavy    pruning    of     the    top    tends    to 
increase    growth,    or    the    production    of    wood. 
Heavy  pruning  of   the  root   tends  to  lessen  the 
production    of    wood.     Water- sprouts    generally 
follow  heavy  pruning,  particularly  if  the  pruning 
is  performed  in  winter. 

287.  Checking  growth,  so   long  as  the  plant 
remains  healthy,  tends  to  cause  overgrown  plants 
to  bear.      One   means   of  checking  growth  is  to 
withhold    fertilizers    and    tillage ;     another   is   to 
resort  to  root- pruning ;  another  is  to  head- in  or 
cut-back  the  young  shoots.     Some  plants,  how- 
ever,   bear  most   profusely  when    they  are  very 
vigorous  ;    but  they  are  such,  for  the  most  part, 
as  have    been   moderately  and  continuously  vig- 


166  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

orous  from  the  beginning,  rather  than  those 
which  are  forced  into  very  heavy  growth  after  a 
long  period  of  neglect. 

288.  The  heading- in  of  young  growths  tends 
to  force  out  the  side  shoots   and  to  develop  the 
dormant  buds.     The  more  a  plant  is  headed- in, 
therefore,  the  more   thinning- out  it  will  require. 
Heading-iii      induces     fruitfulness     by    checking 
growth    and    by    encouraging    the    formation    of 
side  spurs  (upon  which  fruit  may  be  borne) . 

289.  Heavy   pruning   every  few   years — which 
is  the  custom — tends  to  keep  trees  over-vigorous 
and    unproductive.        Mild    pruning    every    year 
maintains  the  equilibrium  of  the  plant,  and  tends 
to  make  it  fruitful. 

3.  By  Keeping  Enemies  in  Check 
3a.    The  kinds  of  enemies 

290.  Of   plant  enemies  or  diseases,  there  are 
three   main  types, — insects,  parasitic   fungi,   con- 
stitutional or  physiological  troubles. 

291.  Insect  pests  are  of  two  general  types,  so 
far   as  their   method  of    feeding  is    concerned,— 
insects  which  chew,  or  bite  off  pieces  of  the  plant, 
and  those  which  suck  their  food  from  the  juices 
of  the  plant.     In  the  former  class  are  the  worms 
and   beetles  ;    in  the   latter  are  plant -lice,   scale 
insects,    and    the    so-called    true    bugs    (as    the 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT        167 

squash-bug  or  stink-bug,  and  the  leaf -hoppers ). 
We  may  classify  injurious  insects  again,  without 
reference  to  their  mode  of  taking  food,  into 
those  which  live  and  feed  on  the  outside  of  the 
plant,  and  those  which,  as  borers  and  apple- 
worms,  burrow  and  feed  inside  the  tissue. 

292.  Of  fungous  pests,  the  farmer  may  recog- 
nize two  groups, — those  which  live  wholly  on  the 
outside  of    the  host   (as  the   powdery  mildew  of 
the  grape,    pea    mildew),    and   those    which   live 
wholly  or   in    part    inside  the  tissues  (as  apple- 
scab,    black-knot,    potato    mildew).       Most    inju- 
rious   fungi    are    of    the   latter   kind.       Fungous 
troubles  are   nearly  always  marked  by  definitely 
diseased  spots  on  the  leaves  or  twigs. 

293.  Physiological    or   constitutional    troubles 
are   those    which    affect   the    whole    plant    or    an 
entire  leaf  or  branch,  and  the  cause  of  which  is 
not    apparent   on   the    exterior.      These    troubles 
may  be  due  to  germs  or  bacteria  working  within 
the  tissues  (as  pear-blight),  or  to  some  difficulty 
in   the   nutrition   of    the   plant.      These    troubles 
are  generally   not  marked  by  definitely  diseased 
spots  or  blemishes,  but  by  the  gradual  dying  of 
an  entire  leaf,  branch  or  plant. 

36.   The  preventives  and  remedies 

294.  Keeping  the  plants  vigorous  and  healthy 
is  the  first  step  towards  the  control  of  pests  and 


168  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

diseases.  Clean  tillage,  rotation  of  crops,  plant- 
ing varieties  which  are  least  liable  to  attack,  and 
careful  attention  to  prevent  all  the  conditions 
which  seem  to  favor  the  breeding  of  insects  and 
the  spread  of  diseases,  are  quite  as  important  as 
destroying  the  enemies  ;  for  "an  ounce  of  pre- 
vention is  worth  a  pound  of  cure." 

295.  Insects   are  destroyed   by  three   general 
means  :    (a)  by  killing  them  directly,  as  by  hand- 
picking,  digging  out  borers  ;    (b)    by  killing  them 
by  means  of    some    caustic    application    to   their 
bodies ;     (c)    by    poisoning    them    by   poisoning 
their  food.      In  some   instances,  insects  may  be 
kept  away   by    covering    the    plants    with    some 
material,  as    lime,  to  which  the   insects    object ; 
but   this    method   of    fighting   insects    is   usually 
unsatisfactory.      A   substance  which  is    used   to 
destroy  an  insect  is  called  an  insecticide. 

296.  (b)    The  caustic   applications  or  insecti- 
cides must  be  used  for  those  insects  which  suck 
their  food   (291).     Kerosene,  kerosene  emulsion, 
soap  washes,  lime-and-sulfur,  miscible  oils,  to- 
bacco, and  the  like,  are  the  materials  used;    and 
plant-lice,  scale   insects,   plant-bugs,  thrips,  and 
leaf-hoppers  are  the  insects  thus  treated. 

297.  (c)  The  poisonous  applications  are  used 
for    the    chewing    insects    that    prey    upon    the 
outside  of   the   plant  (not  for  borers,  which  are 
usually  dug  out) .   Paris  green  and  other  arsenicals 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       169 

and  white  hellebore  are  the  materials  commonly 
used  ;  and  worms,  potato -bugs,  and  all  leaf- 
chewing  pests,  are  the  insects  thus  treated. 

298.  Fungi  are  killed  by  materials  which  con- 
tain sulfur  or  copper.      Fungi  which  live  inside 
the  leaf  or  stem  (292)  cannot  be  killed  directly 
by  applications,  but  the  parts  which  project  into 
the  air   (the  fruiting  portions)  can   be  destroyed 
and  the  fungus  thereby  weakened  and   checked  ; 
and   the  spores   (which  answer  to  seeds)   cannot 
grow  on  a  surface  which  is  covered  with  copper 
or  sulfur.     The  best  treatment  of  plant  diseases, 
therefore,  is  to  make  the   application  before  the 
disease  gains  a  foothold.     A  substance  which  is 
used  to  destroy  fungi  is  called  a  fungicide. 

299.  The  best  general  fungicide  is    the    Bor- 
deaux   mixture,    made    of     lime    and    sulfate   of 
copper.      It   not    only    destroys   the   fungi,    but 
adheres  long  to  the  plant.     Another  good  fungi- 
cide is  carbonate  of  copper  ;    and  it  is  preferred 
for  ornamental  plants  and  for  late  application  to 
fruit,   because    it   does    not  discolor   or  soil    the 
leaves  or  fruits. 

300.  The   application  of  insecticides  and  fun- 
gicides is  usually  made  in  water,  with  a  syringe 
or  pump,  or  by  means  of  a  spray  ;    and  thereby 
has  arisen  the  practice  of  spraying. 

301.  In  order  that  spraying  shall  be  success- 
ful,  it  must  (a)  apply  the  materials  which  wilj 


170  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

destroy  the  pest  in  question  and  yet  not  injure 
the  plant,  (6)  be  thoroughly  done,  so  that  no 
part  of  the  plant  is  left  unprotected,  (c)  be 
performed  the  moment  the  enemy  appears,  or,  in 
the  case  of  fungous  diseases,  as  soon  as  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  pest  is  coming. 

302.  The  best    machine  or  pump  is  the  one 
which  throws    the  finest    spray  the  farthest  dis- 
tance.     Other   factors   are  the    capacity   of    the 
pump,  its  strength,  its  durability,   its    lightness, 
the  ease  with  which  it  works. 

303.  Spraying  will  not  keep  all  fungous  dis- 
eases in  check  ;    and,  in  any  case,  it  should  be 
supplemented   by    sanitation,    as    by   burning   or 
burying  the  fallen  diseased  leaves  and  fruits,  the 
cutting   away   of    infected   parts,    and   the    like. 
Some  fungous   diseases,   as  the  grain  smuts,  are 
carried  over  from  year  to  year  in  the  seed  ;  and 
the  proper  treatment   is  to   soak  the   seed   in  a 
fungicide.       The     constitutional    diseases     (293) 
must  be   treated  by  other  means  than  spraying, 
usually   by   burning   the    affected   part   or   plant 
(294,  294a). 

SUGGESTIONS    ON    CHAPTER    XI 

267  a.  "The  daisy -cursed  meadows  of  the  East  are  those 
which  have  been  long  mown  and  are  badly  'run,'  or  else  those 
which  were  not  properly  made,  and  the  grass  obtained  but  a 
poor  start.  The  farmer  may  say  that  the  daisies  have  'run  out' 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OP  THE  PLANT 


171 


the  grass,  but  the  fact  is  that  the  meadow  began  to  fail,  and  the 
daisies  quickly  seized  upon  the  opportunity  to  gain  a  foot- 
hold. *  The  weedy  lawns  are  those  which  have  a 
thiii  turf,  and  the  best  treatment  is  to  scratch  the  ground 
iightly  with  an  iron-toothed  rake,  apply  fertilizer,  and  sow  more 
seed."  "The  agricultural  conditions  in  the  Dakotas  and  other 
parts  of  our  Plains  region  are  just  such  as  to  encourage  a  hardy 
intruder  like  the  Russian  thistle.  An  average  of  eight  or  nine 
bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  is  itself  proof  of  superficial  farming; 


Fig.  04.     A  gang-plow. 


Pig.  65.     A  light  gang-pli 
for  very  shallow  work. 


but  the  chief  fault  with  this  western  agriculture  is  the  continu- 
ous cropping  with  one  crop,— wheat." — Bailey,  "  Survival  of  the 
Unlike,"  pp.  196,  195. 

270a.  Maize  may  be  harrowed  until  it  is  four  inches  high. 
The  plants  will  straighten  up.  This  harrowing  is  cheaper  than 
cultivating;  and  if  the  land  is  put  in  good  condition  very  early 
in  the  life  of  the  crop,  much  less  subsequent  tillage  is  required. 
In  general,  narrow-toothed  harrows  should  be  used  (Fig.  24), 
but  the  style  of  tool  must  be  adapted  to  the  particular  land  in 
question. 

277a.  If  the  plowing  has  been  thorough  for  the  first  few 
years  after  the  orchard  is  planted,  the  ground  should  be  so 
mellow  that  very  light  plowing  will  answer  thereafter.  There 
will  be  no  sod  to  tear  up  and  to  plow  under,  and  the  tree  roots 
will  be  deep  in  the  ground,  where  they  can  find  moisture.  A 
gang- plow  (Fig.  64)  should  be  sufficient  for  the  spring  plowing 


172 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


in  most  mature  orchards,  unless  there  is  a  heavy  growth  of 
cover- crop  to  plow  under.  A  tool  for  still  shallower  plowing  is 
shown  in  Fig.  65.  This  is  excellent  for  orchards  on  light  or 
loose  soils,  although  its  height  makes  it  more  difficult  to  handle 


Fig.  6t>.    The  proper  way  to 
make  the  wound. 


Fig.  67.    The  wrong  way  to 
make  the  cut. 


about  low-headed  trees.  For  full  discussions  of  the  tilling  of 
fruit  plantations,  see  "Principles  of  Fruit-Growing,"  Chapter  iii. 
278a.  If  some  of  the  limbs  are  taken  from  an  apple  tree  for 
the  purpose  of  making  it  bear  better,  the  operation  is  pruning  ; 
if  the  tree  is  sheared  or  trimmed  to  make  it  round -headed,  the 
operation  is  training.  A  rose  or  a  grape-vine  may  be  pruned 
by  cutting  away  part  of  the  wood;  it  may  be  trained  on  wires 
or  to  the  side  of  a  house. 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       173 

279fl.  On  the  subject  of  the  struggle  for  existence  in  the 
tree  top,  consult,  Observation  iv.  in  "Lessons  with  Plants,"  and 
Chapter  i.  in  "Pruning-Book."  The  philosophical  bearings  of 
this  fact  of  competition  are  presented 
in  Essay  iii.,  "Survival  of  the  Unlike." 

281o.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
closer  the  wound  to  the  branch,  the 
quicker  it  will  heal.  The  smoother  the 
wound,  the  better  and  quicker  it  will 
heal.  Figs.  66  and  67  illustrate  right  y. 
and  wrong  methods.  For  full  dis- 
cussion  of  the  healing  of  wounds,  read 
Chapter  iii.  in  the  "Pruning-Book." 

284a.  An  antiseptic  dressing  is  one 
which  prevents  germs  or  microbes  from 
growing  on  the  surface  of  the  wound  ; 
for  the  decay  which  follows  wounds  is 
the  work  of  germs  and  fungi.  In  gen- 
eral, the  best  dressing  for  wounds  is 

Fig.  68.    Work  of  the  bud-moth 

lead  paint.    Wax  is  not  durable  enough,        iarva,_a  chewing  insect, 
nor  is  it  antiseptic.     Bordeaux  mixture 

is  good  for  its  antiseptic  properties,  but  is  not  durable,  and  it 
affords  little  protection  from  the  weather. 

285a.  The  principles  of  pruning  are  discussed  under  twenty 
heads  in  Chapter  iv.  of  "Pruning-Book." 

291o.  The  chewing  or  biting  insects  eat  up  the  parts  upon 
which  they  prey.  Fig.  68  is  an  example  of  such  work.  The 
sucking  insects  do  not  eat  up  the  part,  but  they  often  leave  dis- 
tinct marks  of  their  work,  as  in  Fig.  69.  A  plant-bug  is  shown 
in  Fig.  70.  The  true  weevils  and  curculios  are  biting  insects, 
although  they  have  snouts  (Fig.  71). 

292a.  A  fungus  is  a  plant.  It  is  destitute  of  chlorophyll  or 
leaf-green.  It  lives  on  living  organisms  (or  is  parasitic),  or  on 
dead  or  decaying  matter  (or  is  saprophytic,  as  mushrooms  and 
toadstools).  Some  kinds,  as  toadstools,  are  large  and  con- 
spicuous ;  others,  as  molds,  are  small  and  fragile  ;  while  still 
pthers  are  nearly  or  quite  microscopic.  The  plural  of  fungus  i* 


174 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


fungi  (rarely  written  funguses).  As  an  adjective,  the  word  is 
written  fungous,  as  a  fungous  disease.  A  fungoid  disease  is  a 
fungus-like  disease,  the  exact  origin  of  which  may  not  be  known 
or  specified.  Rusts,  mildews  and  leaf-blights  are  types  of  fun- 
gous diseases. 

292fe.    The  plant  or  the  animal  upon  or  in  which  a  parasitic 
fungus  lives  is  known  as  its  host.     The  fungus  injures  its  host  by 


Fig.  69.    Work  of  the  four-lined  leaf-bug— a  sucking  insect — on  currant 
foliage. 

robbing  it  of  nutriment  and  sometimes  by  breaking  up  its  cellular 
structure,  and  by  obstructing  the  breathing-pores  and  interfering 
with  the  movement  of  its  fluids. 

293Z>.    Physiological  troubles  may  be  termed  internal  troubles, 
although  the  germs  which  cause  some  of   them  enter  from  tha 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       175 

outsule.  There  is  no  external  growth  of  a  fungus,  and  rarely  any 
well  defined  small  spots  on  the  leaves.  Fig.  72  shows  the  spots  of 
a  fungous  disease  ;  if  this  leaf  had  been  attacked  by  a  bacterial 
or  physiological  disease,  the  entire  leaf  would  probably  have 
shown  signs  of  failing,  for  the  food  supply  is  usually  cut  off  in 
the  leaf-stalk  or  the  main  veins.  In  Fig.  72,  however,  each  spot 
represents  a  distinct  attack  of  the  fungus. 
Fig.  73  is  a  type  of  physiologial  trouble,  the 
edge  of  the  leaf  dying  from  the  cutting-off  of 
its  food  supply  ;  this  dead  border  will  widen 
until  the  leaf  dies. 

294a.  Physicians  treat  some  diseases  by 
prophylaxis,— that  is,  by  giving  attention  to 
means  of  sanitation  and  of  preventing  the 
spread  of  the  disorder.  Farmers  must  do  the 
same.  Wire-worms  are  rarely  troublesome  Fig.  70.  The  tarnished 
in  short  and  quick  rotations,  particularly  in  plant-bug,-a  sucking 

,    .  .  insect, 

those  in  which  sod  is  not  a  prominent  fea- 
ture.     Club-root    of  the    cabbage    is   rarely 
troublesome   on  land    which   has   not   grown 
cabbages  or  allied    plants   for  a  few  years. 
Apple-scab  is  least  serious  in  those  orchards   Pig.  71.  The  strawberry 
which  have  been  thoroughly  sprayed  in  pre-       weevil,  —  a  chewing 
vious   years.     Plum-rot  is  least  troublesome      >nsect. 
when  the  fruit  is  well  thinned.     Rose-bugs  seldom  trouble  vine- 
yards which  are  on  strong  or  heavy  lands. 

296a.  Kerosene  emulsion  may  be  made  as  follows:  Hard, 
soft  or  whale-oil  soap,  ^  Ib. ;  water,  1  gal.;  kerosene,  2  gals. 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  hot  water;  remove  from  the  fire  and  while 
still  hot  add  the  kerosene.  Pump  the  liquid  back  into  itself 
for  five  or  ten  minutes  or  until  it  becomes  a  creamy  mass.  If 
properly  made,  the  oil  will  not  separate  out  on  cooling.  For  use 
on  dormant  trees,  dilute  with  from  5  to  7  parts  of  water.  For 
killing  plant-lice  on  foliage,  dilute  with  10  to  15  parts  water. 

Crude  oil  emulsion  is  made  in  the  same  way  by  substituting 
«rude  oil  in  place  of  kerosene. 


176 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


297a.  The  Paris  green  mixture  is  compounded  by  using  Paris 
green  1  pound,  water  150  to  300  gallons.  If  this  mixture  is  to 
be  used  upon  fruit  trees,  1  pound  of  quicklime  should  be  added. 
Repeated  applications  will  injure  most  foliage,  unless  the  lime  is 
used.  Paris  green  may  be  added  to  Bordeaux  mixture. 

2976.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  now  much  used  for  chewing  insects. 
This  can  be  applied  in  a  stronger  mixture  than  other  arsenical 


Fig.  72.    The  spots  of  hollyhock  rust,— a  fungous  disease. 

poisons  without  injuring  the  foliage.  It  is,  therefore,  much  used 
against  beetles  and  other  insects  that  are  hard  to  poison.  It  comes 
in  the  form  of  a  paste  and  should  be  mixed  thoroughly  with  a  small 
amount  of  water  before  placing  in  the  sprayer,  else  the  nozzle 
will  clog.  It  is  used  in  strengths  varying  from  4  to  10  Ibs.  per 
100  gallons,  depending  on  the  kind  of  insect  to  be  killed. 
Arsenate  of  lead  and  Bordeaux  mixture  can  be  combined  without 
lessening  the  value  of  either. 

297c.    The   lime-and-sulfur  wash,   for   scale   insects,   is   now 


SUBSEQUENT     CARE     OF     THE     PLANT 


177 


much  used:  Quicklime,  201bs.;  sulfur  (flour  or  flowers),  15  Ibs.; 
water,  50  gals.  Place  the  lime  in  a  kettle.  Add  hot  water  grad- 
ually in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce  the  most  rapid  slaking 
of  the  lime.  When  the  lime  begins  to  slake,  add  the  sulfur  and 
stir  together.  If  convenient, 
keep  the  mixture  covered 
with  burlap  to  save  the  heat. 
After  slaking  has  ceased, 
add  more  water  and  boil  t 
mixture  one  hour.  As  the 
sulfur  goes  into  solution,  a 
rich  orange-red  or  dark  green 
color  will  appear.  After  boil- 
ing sufficiently,  add  water  to 
the  required  amount  and 
strain  into  the  spray  tank. 
The  wash  is  most  effective 
when  applied  warm.  This 
mixture  can  be  applied  safely 
only  when  the  trees  are  dor- 
mant,— late  in  the  autumn 
after  the  leaves  have  fallen,, 
or  early  in  the  spring  before  Fig.  73.  Disease  of  cucumber  leaf,  the  dying 
the  buds  swell.  margin  indicating  that  the  trouble  is  due 

299a.    Bordeaux  mixture      to  80me  cuttin«-°ff  of  tbe  food  ^w^y. 
is  the  standard  fungicide.    It  is  made  of  copper  sulfate,  5  Ibs. ; 
stone  lime  or  quicklime  (unslaked),  5  Ibs.;  water,  50  gals.     The 
strength  varies  according  to  the  plant  to   be  sprayed.     Bordeaux 
maybe  prepared  in  the  following  way: 

Copper  snlfatc. — Dissolve  the  required  amount  of  copper  sul- 
fate in  water  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  one  gallon  several 
hours  before  the  solution  is  needed;  suspend  the  copper  sulfate 
crystals  in  a  sack  near  the  top  of  the  water.  In  case  large  quan- 
tites  of  stock  solution  are  needed,  two  pounds  of  copper  sulfate 
may  be  dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  water.  Lime. — Slake  the  lime 
in  a  tub  or  trough.  Add  the  water  slowly  at  first,  so  that  the  lime 
crumbles  into  a  fine  powder.  If  small  quantities  of  lime  are  used, 


178  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

hot  water  is  preferred  When  completely  slaked,  or  entirely 
powdered,  add  more  water.  When  the  lime  has  slaked  sufficiently, 
add  water  to  bring  it  to  a  thick  milk,  or  to  a  certain  number  of 
gallons.  The  amount  required  for  each  tank  of  spray  mixture  can 
be  secured  approximately  from  this  stock  mixture,  which  should 
not  be  allowed  to  dry  out.  To  make  Bordeaux. — Use  5  gallons  of 
stock  solution  of  copper  sulfate  for  every  fifty  gallons  of  Bordeaux 
required.  Pour  this  into  the  tank.  Add  water  until  the  tank  is 
about  two-thirds  full.  From  the  stock  lime  mixture  take  the  re- 
quired amount.  Dilute  this  a  little  by  adding  water,  and  strain 
into  the  tank.  Stir  the  mixture,  and  add  water  to  make  the  re- 
quired amount.  It  is  preferable  to  dilute  the  copper  sulfate  solu- 
tion. Never  pour  together  the  strong  stock  mixtures  and  dilute 
afterward.  TJie  ferrocyanide  test. — It  is  not  necessary  to  weigh  the 
lime  in  making  Bordeaux,  for  a  test  can  be  used  to  determine 
when  enough  of  a  stock  lime  mixture  has  been  added.  Dissolve  an 
ounce  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash  in  a  pint  of  water.  Add  the 
lime  mixture  to  the  diluted  copper  sulfate  solution  until  the  ferro- 
cyanide solution  will  not  turn  brown  when  dropped  from  the  bottle 
into  the  mixture.  It  is  best  to  add  an  excess  of  lime. 

299ft.  Copper  carbonate  is  used  as  follows:  Copper  carbo- 
nate, 1  ounce;  ammonia,  enough  to  dissolve  the  copper;  water, 
9  gallons.  Before  making  the  solution,  make  a  paste  of  the 
copper  carbonate  by  mixing  it  with  a  little  water.  Use  26°  am- 
monia, and  dilute  with  7  to  8  volumes  of  water.  Then  gradually 
add  the  necessary  amount  to  the  copper  carbonate  until  all  is 
dissolved.  Use  only  the  clear  liquid.  Dilute  as  required.  For 
same  purposes  as  Bordeaux,  but  does  not  soil  foliage  or  fruit. 

303o.  Smut-infested  seeds  are  treated  by  corrosive  sublimate, 
formalin,  copper  sulfate,  hot  water,  and  other  means.  For  the 
first,  use  corrosive  sublimate,  1,  oz. ;  water,  7  gals.  It  is  an  effec- 
tive solution  for  potato  scab.  Soak  seed  potatoes  1%  hours. 

Formalin  is  a  gas  dissolved  in  water.  Commercially,  it  has  a 
strength  of  about  forty  per  cent.  One  pint  dissolved  'in  thirty 
gallons  of  water  is  used  effectively  in  preventing  potato  scab 
(soak  tubers  for  half  an  hour,  and  plant  in  clean  soil),  or  smut  of 
oats  and  stinking  smut  of  wheat  (soak  seed  in  solution  for  ten 
minutes,  drain  and  sow  the  next  day). 


CHAPTER   XII 
PASTURES,   MEADOWS,   AND   FORAGE 

/.   P.  ROBERTS 

1.    Grass 

304.  The    fundamental    crop     is    grass.      It 
covers  the  land  as  with  a  blanket,  prepares  the 
soil  for  other  crops,  and  affords  sustenance  for 
farm  animals. 

305.  Grass  is  one  of  the  important  crops  in 
rotations  ;    and  a  rotation  is  essential  to  general 
husbandry  if  productiveness  of  the  land  is  main- 
tained.    Rotations  improve  the  farm  (a)  because 
the  land  receives  different  treatments  in  different 
years,    so  that  faults  of   one  year  may   be  cor- 
rected the  following  year,  (6)  no  one  element  of 
plant-food    is   likely   to    be   exhausted,    (c)    one 
crop    leaves    the    land     in    best    condition    for 
another,   (d)  roots  and  stubble   of   grass,  clover 
and    cereals    improve    the    texture    of    the    soil, 
(e)   they   allow   the    use   of    clovers,  which    add 
nitrogen,   and  (/)  bring  up  food  from  the   sub- 
soil  (170,  170a),    (g)  weeds  and  pests  are  kept 
in  check,  (li)  labor  is  economized. 

(179) 


180  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

306.  The   number   of   plants   of   grass    on-  a 
given  area  should  be  governed  by  the  uses  for 
which   they   are   grown,   their   habits   of   growth 
and  their  size.     The  smaller  grasses  thrive  well 
if   the  plants   stand  near   together.      The  larger 
grasses,    as     maize,    should     have    much     room 
between  the   plants  or   hills.      The   plants   in  a 
pasture  field  should   be  more  numerous  than  in 
the  meadow,  and  more  numerous  in  the  meadow 
than  in  fields  devoted  to  raising  grass  seed. 

2.   Permanent  Pastures 
2a.   Preparation  of  the  land 

307.  When  the  land  is  fairly  level  and  can  be 
fitted  without   too  much  expense,   it   is  best   to 
plow  the  ground  two  or  three  times  during  the 
summer,  the  first   time  in  early  spring,  and   to 
keep   the    surface    fine    and    clean   by    frequent 
tillage.     This   treatment    improves   the   physical 
condition  of   the  soil,  destroys  weeds  and  weed 
seeds,   makes  much    dormant   plant -food  availa- 
ble, and  conserves  moisture  so  that  the  surface 
soil,  in  most  cases,  will  be  damp  enough  to  cause 
seeds  to  germinate  even  in  August. 

308.  On    friable    soils,    as    on    the    western 
prairies  and  in  some  other  places,  a  single  plow- 
ing and  frequent  shallow  surface  tillage  may  be 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE  181 

the  best  treatment.  On  reclaimed  boggy  lands 
which  have  been  cultivated  long  enough  to 
eradicate  wild  plants,  the  soil  is  so  light  that 
plowing  may  be  unnecessary.  Here  a  little 
scarifying  of  the  surface  and  frequent  use  of  the 
roller  will  likely  give  best  results. 

309.  A  good  pasture  may  also  be  secured  by 
less  expensive  preparation,  if  more  time  is  taken. 
When  rolling  land  has  been  devoted   to  the  pro- 
duction of  cereals  and  hay  until  the  soil  fails  to 
produce    satisfactory   crops,  it   is   often   wise    to 
abandon  the  unprofitable   rotation    and  to  devote 
the  land  to  permanent  pasturage  ;    but  few  per- 
sons   are   willing    to    spend    as   much   time    and 
money  as    will    be   necessary   to    secure    a   good 
pasture   at  once.      In    that   case,   sow    a   liberal 
quantity   of   pasture    seeds   in    a   crop   of   thinly 
seeded  wheat,  rye,  barley  or  buckwheat,  the  land 
having   been   fitted    for    the    cereals    with    extra 
care,  and  plant- food  added  by  a  liberal  applica- 
tion of  fertilizers  or  manure. 

310.  Since   the  pasture    is  not  to  be   plowed 
after  it  is  once  seeded,  it  is  necessary  to  prepare 
the  entire    soil   so  perfectly  that    it  will   form  a 
comfortable  home  and   provide   nourishment   for 
the  plants  for  many  years.     If  the  land  is  poor, 
fertility   should    be   applied.      But    prepare    the 
land  as  best  we  may,  it  will  not  be  many  years 
before  much   of  the  readily  available  plant-food 


182  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

will  have  been  used  by  the  plants,  and  some  of 
the  products  of  the  animals  which  consume  the 
grass  will  never  be  returned  to  the  pasture ;  hence, 
the  pasture  will  tend  to  become  less  productive  as 
the  years  pass.  And,  as  the  plants  become  old, 
they  are  less  vigorous  than  young  ones,  not  only 
because  of  age,  but  from  frequent  injuries  from 
the  animals.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  main- 
tain the  pasture,  as  well  as  to  prepare  it  in  the 
beginning. 

26.  Maintaining  the  pasture 

311.  The  grass  should  be  of  the  right  kind. 
In   the    North,   June-grass   or   blue-grass  is    the 
most  permanent  pasture  grass,  and  it  is  the  one 
which  gradually  works   into  pastures  after  other 
grasses  begin  to  fail.   Timothy  is  commonly  sown, 
about  six  quarts  to  the  acre.     A  little  June-grass 
seed  may  be  added,  but   this  grass   may  usually 
be  depended  upon  to  come  in  of  itself.     Orchard- 
grass  is  useful  in  shady  pastures  and  stands  graz- 
ing well,  but  grows  too  much  in  stools.     Red- top 
is    useful    in  the  moister  lands.      In  the   South, 
Bermuda  grass  and  Japan  clover  are  best. 

312.  After  the  pasture  has  been  secured,  the 
grasses   must   be  maintained   for  many  years    in 
full  vigor.     It  is  pre- supposed  that   the  clovers 
have  been  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  grass- 
seed  mixtures  when  the  pasture  was  first  made, 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND     FORAGE  183 

since  the  clovers  are  host  plants  to  the  grasses. 
They  start  early  and  protect  the  later-growing 
grasses.  Most  of  the  clovers  live  but  from  one 
to  three  years.  The  clovers,  in  common  with 
other  legumes,  contain  a  large  percentage  of 
potential  nitrogen  (110,  138,  190).  The  pasture 
grasses  are  much  benefited  by  a  full  supply  of 
nitrogen,  but  they  can  secure  little,  if  any,  from 
the  air,  and  hence  must  supply  their  needs  as 
best  they  can  from  that  found  in  the  soil.  It 
will  then  be  understood  how  eagerly  the  hungry 
grasses  feed  on  the  decaying  short-lived  clovers. 
It  will  also  be  understood  why  clovers  are  called 
host  plants. 

313.  The  short-lived  host  plants  may  be  per- 
petuated, and  the  grasses  kept  young  and  vig- 
orous,    by    sowing    seeds    of    the    clovers    and 
grasses  every  two  or  three  years  in  early  spring, 
and  scarifying    the   surface  with  a  sharp-toothed 
harrow,  this  to  be  followed  by  the  roller.      The 
harrowing  will    not   only   tear  out    some   of    the 
superannuated    grass   roots  (270)   and  old  plants 
and  cover  the  seeds,  but  it  will  tend  to  aerate  the 
surface   soil    and   to   promote   bacterial    activity. 
From    time    to    time,    a   light   dressing  of   farm 
manures   or  of  commercial    fertilizers   should    be 
applied,  spread  evenly,  in  the  fall. 

314.  An    inspection    of    the   field    should    be 
made  each    spring,   in  order  that   seed    may  be 


184  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

sown  where  not  enough  plants  are  present,  and 
also  to  discover  what  kinds  of  plants  are  most 
promising,  so  that  the  supplementary  seeds  may 
be  chosen  to  best  suit  the  conditions.  Coax  the 
grass  to  grow  by  shading  the  imperfectly  cov- 
ered knolls  with  refuse  material,  such  as  is 
always  found  about  a  farmstead.  Even  a  light 
covering  of  brush  or  maize  stalks  may  be  used 
to  partly  shade  the  ground,  and  to  conserve 
moisture.  If  a  small  ration  of  grain  be  fed  the 
animals  which  graze  the  pasture,  the  field  will 
tend  to  become  more  productive  instead  of  less 
productive. 

315.  It  will  require  several  years  of  watchful 
care,  new   seed,  possibly  harrowing  and  rolling, 
some  added  plant- food    and   a  light  dressing  of 
lime,    and   the   timely   destruction    of   large,  un- 
palatable weeds,  to  secure  a  really  good,  perma- 
nent   pasture.       The    eye    of    the     husbandman 
makes    the    grass    thrive. 

316.  In  the  pastures  the  grass  is  kept  short ; 
therefore  the   entire   surface   should    be   covered. 
If  areas  of  even  a  few  square  inches  are    bare, 
needless  evaporation  takes  place.     If  the  grasses 
are  kept  too  short,  the  rays  of  the  sun  will  take 
up  much  soil   moisture  which  should   have  been 
taken  up  by  the  plants,  since  the   soil  will   not 
be   well    shaded.     If   the   plants    are    allowed   to 
grow    tall     and     produce    seed,     then    they    are 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE  185 

weakened.  To  prevent  the  tall  growth,  mow  the 
pasture,  if  there  are  not  enough  animals  to  pre- 
vent the  grass  from  seeding,  and  leave  the  cut 
material  to  shade  the  soil.  Aim  to  preserve 
the  living  grass  shade  intact.  Substitute  young 
plants  for  the  old  ones.  Prevent  the  soil  from 
becoming  acid  by  light  applications  of  lime  and 
by  harrowing  it.  And,  so  far  as  possible,  ex- 
ercise timely  care  to  prevent  the  plants  from  be- 
coming hungry  and  thirsty. 

317.  Here,  then,  in  a  nut-shell,  are  the  ele- 
ments of  a  good,  permanent  pasture :  superior 
preparation  of  soil,  suitable  and  abundant  seeds 
sown  in  August,  and  light  pasturing  the  first 
season,  or,  better,  mowing  the  first  year  ;  and 
appropriate  seeds  and  plant -food  must  be  added 
from  time  to  time,  as  required. 


3.    Meadows 
3«.   Temporary   meadows 

318.  In  grain-growing  districts,  the  meadow 
may  occupy  from  one  to  three  years  in  a  rota- 
tion. In  dairy  districts,  meadows  are  often  per- 
manent. The  average  yield  of  hay  in  the  North 
is  little  more  than  one  ton  per  acre,  although 
some  meadows  yield  from  two  to  three  tons, 
and,  in  rare  cases,  four  tons.  The  average 


186  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

yield  is  unprofitable,  either  in  a  rotation  or  in 
a  permanent  meidow.  As  a  crop  in  the  rota- 
tion, the  meadow  may  improve  the  soil  for 
subsequent  crops. 

319.  The    larger    yields    are    usually    secured 
from    vigorous    young    meadows    which    contain 
three  or  four  parts   of  timothy  and   one  part  of 
mixed    clovers.      If    clover    be    associated    with 
timothy     in     approximately    these     proportions, 
nearly  as    much  timothy  will    be    secured   as    if 
it   were    sown    alone,    and    the    clover,    or    host 
plants,  will  be  extra.     True,  the  clovers  mature 
more    quickly    than    the    timothy,    and    this    is 
somewhat    objectionable ;     therefore,    the    clover 
mixture  may  be  composed  largely  of  alsike  clo- 
ver, which  remains  green  longer  and  cures  lighter 
colored  than  the  medium  red  clover  does. 

320.  The  meadow  must  be  viewed  from  many 
standpoints.     For  the  city  market,  unmixed  hay 
sells  for  more  than  the  mixed,  though  the  latter 
may  be  better  and  more  palatable.     The  uses  to 
which   the  hay  is   destined  must  be   considered, 
since   horses    should    not    be   fed   much    clover, 
while  sheep   and   cattle   should   not   be  fed   hay 
composed  wholly  of  timothy  and  similar  grasses. 
But    the    meadow    remains     productive     longest 
where  the  host  plants  are  present. 

321.  Whether  it  is  best  to  leave  the  meadow 
for  some  years  and  preserve  its  productiveness 


PASTURES,  MEADOWS,  AND  FORAGE  187 

by  adding  new  seed,  harrowing,  and  by  the  ap- 
plication of  plant -food,  or  to  mow  it  for  one  or 
two  years  and  then  plow  and  use  the  land  for 
other  crops,  are  questions  which  must  be  an- 
swered by  the  condition  of  the  meadow  and  the 
character  of  the  rotation.  There  is  one  inva- 
riable rule  to  be  followed, — if  the  meadow  fails  to 
return  two  tons  of  field-dried  hay  to  the  acre, 
plow  it  up  ;  and  when  the  old  plants  are  sub- 
dued and  the  soil  put  in  ideal  condition,  and 
when  the  causes  which  prevented  full  success  with 
the  old  meadow  are  fully  considered,  cast  in  the 
new  seed  with  understanding,  trusting  that  fuller 
success  will  be  reached. 

36.  Permanent  meadows 

322.  With  permanent  meadows  many  new 
problems  are  presented.  Many  fields  are  of  such 
a  character  as  to  preclude  a  rotation  of  crops. 
In  such  cases  the  problem  is  presented  of  con- 
tinued liberal  production  without  plowing.  Low 
lands,  or  those  which  are  wholly  or  in  part  over- 
flowed for  brief  periods,  constitute  the  larger 
part  of  our  permanent  meadows.  These  low 
lands  are  the  home  of  many  natural  grasses 
which  do  not  thrive  on  the  uplands  ;  and  some 
of  the  cultivated  upland  grasses  and  the  clovers 
are  not  at  their  best  when  grown  in  wettish 
soils. 


188  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

323.  In    lowland    meadows,    a    battle    royal, 
which    is    most    interesting    and    instructive    to 
watch,  goes  on  from  year  to  year.     Most  of  the 
plants  hold  their  places   so  tenaciously,   and    so 
many  hardy  new  ones   appear,   that   the    plants 
soon  become  too  numerous  and  then  dwarf   one 
another,    in   which    case    the    production   is    di- 
minished.     On  these   moist   lands  there  is  little 
difficulty  in  securing  sufficient  plants  :  the  prob- 
lem is  rather  how  to  destroy  some  of  them,  that 
better     conditions     may    be    secured    for     those 
which  remain. 

324.  It  has  been   shown  (316)   why  the  pas- 
tures  should  be  fully  covered  with  plants  ;    but 
permanent   meadows   should   have   fewer   plants. 
If  there  are  too  many,  the  grasses  will  not  grow 
to  their  full  size,  and  many  of  the  leaves  on  the 
lower  half  of  the  stalks  will  be  yellowish,  insipid, 
and    lacking   in    aroma    because   they   have   not 
received  enough  sunlight.     If  there  are  too  many 
roots  in  the  soil,  there  will  not  be  sufficient  food 
for  all   except  when  the  soil  is  extremely  fertile 
and  moist ;    and  few  plants  will  come  to  normal 
maturity.    The  grasses  which  are  grown  too  thick, 
and  consequently  have  been  excluded  from  a  full 
supply  of   sunlight,  are  poor  in  quality,  like  the 
apples  which   grow   in  the    shade  on   the    lower 
branches. 

325.  All  this   goes  to  show  how  necessary  it 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE  18S 

may  be  to  destroy  some  of  the  grasses  in  a  per- 
manent meadow.  By  the  vigorous  use  of  a 
sharp-toothed  harrow,  much  may  be  done  to 
relieve  the  "hide -bound"  and  mossy  condition,  to 
destroy  plants  and  to  aerate  the  soil  (270,  313). 
A  light  dressing  of  lime  will  materially  assist  in 
liberating  plant-food  and  in  correcting  soil 
acidity,  as  in  pastures. 

3c.  Kinds  of  grasses  for  meadows 

326.  What  kind  and  quantity  of  seed  should 
be  sown,    is    the    question    that    is    asked    more 
frequently    than   any   other,    because    it   is    most 
difficult  to  answer.     In  the  grass  districts  of  the 
United  States,  timothy  or  "herd's-grass"  usually 
stands  first.     It  is  extremely  hardy,  long  lived,  is 
well    adapted   to   grazing,  and    yet   attains   good 
size  in  the  meadow,  and  when  cut  at  the  appro- 
priate time  and  not  over-cured,  it  makes  superior 
hay.      The    seeds    are   not    expensive,    and   can 
usually  be    secured  without   admixture   of    weed 
seeds.     Timothy,  then,  in  most  cases,  may  form 
the  foundation.      Six    quarts    per   acre,  more   or 
less,  will  suffice  when  used  alone,  and  it  may  be 
sown  at  any  time  from  early  spring  until  fall. 

327.  We  have  seen  (312,  319)  that  clover  adds 
to  the  longevity  and  productiveness  of  the  pas- 
ture or  meadow.     If  the  clovers  are  used,  about 


190  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

the  same  amount  or  a  little  more  seed  is  sown  as 
of  timothy,  but  the  plants  are  likely  to  be  winter- 
killed if  sowing  is  made  after  August. 

328.  There  are  various  secondary  and  supple- 
mentary grasses,  such  as  blue -grass,  orchard- 
grass,  red -top,  and  tall  meadow  fescue.  Some 
or  all  of  these  may  be  used  in  limited  quanti- 
ties. Seeds  of  all  these  weigh  but  fourteen 
pounds  to  the  bushel,  are  usually  sold  in  the 
chaff,  are  not  likely  to  be  pure,  and  are  difficult 
to  distribute  evenly.  In  most  places,  quite  as 
much  blue -grass  appears  as  a  volunteer  as  is 
desirable,  but,  except  in  rare  cases,  it  is  not  a 
profitable  hay  grass.  Orchard- grass  starts  early, 
tends  to  grow  in  hummocks,  does  well  in  the 
shade  and  in  close -grazed  pastures,  but  is  the 
worst  of  all  grasses  in  the  lawn,  where  only 
fine,  recumbent  grasses  and  white  clovers  are 
admissible.  Red -top  is  a  good  pasture  grass 
and  lawn  grass,  and  is  well  adapted  to  very  wet 
meadows,  although  it  does  not  make  a  first- 
class  hay.  Tall  meadow  fescue  is  one  of  the 
most  promising  recently  introduced  grasses  for 
both  meadow  and  pasture.  In  many  places  it 
has  escaped  from  the  fields  into  the  roadsides, 
where  it  shows  its  superiority  over  blue-grass 
and  even  over  timothy.  Of  these  grasses,  from 
one  to  two  bushels  of  seed  are  required  per  acre. 
All  do  well  when  sown  in  early  spring  or  in  fall. 


PASTURES,   MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE  191 

329.  Other  grasses,  as  sheep  fescue,  sweet 
vernal  grass,  and  similar  dwarf  grasses,  are  not 
to  be  recommended  for  general  use  in  America. 
Other  grasses  are  adapted  to  special  localities, 
as  barley  and  wild  oats,  which  are  extensively 
used  in  California  for  hay.  There  is  a  wealth 
of  native  grasses,  but  most  of  them  give  little 
promise  for  upland  meadows. 


4.  Other   Forage   Plants 

330.  The    plants    already  discussed,    together 
with  other  coarser  plants  of  the  farm  which  are 
fed    to    domestic    animals,     are    known    collect- 
ively  as    forage   plants ;     although   this   term    is 
commonly    applied    to    such    plants    as    are    not 
grown  in  permanent  meadows   or  pastures.     By 
recent  common  consent  the  term  "roughage"  has 
been    substituted    for    them.       Both    terms    are 
somewhat  indefinite.      The  words  usually   imply 
somewhat    unconcentrated,     dried    materials,     to 
which    some    concentrated   food   must    be    added 
if  ample  growth,  development  and    surplus    pro- 
ducts, as  milk,  are  secured. 

331.  When    forage    plants    are    cut    and    fed 
green    they    are    called     soiling    plants.      There 
are    several    species  of   plants,   as,  for  instance, 
the   prickly   comfrey,   which,   if  fed   green,  may 


192  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

be   used  for  soiling,   but,   if   dried,   are   unpala- 
table. 

332.  The    production    of    forage    and   soiling 
crops  is  extremely  simple.     They  may   be    inter- 
tilled or  not.     Large  plants,  which  require  abun- 
dant   food    and   moisture    and   a   full    supply   of 
sunlight,    as  maize,  should  be  tilled ;    but  small 
and  quickly  maturing  ones,   as   barley,   may  be 
raised  without  inter -tillage. 

333.  The    two    great    forage    plants    of    the 
United  States  are  maize  and  alfalfa.     The  latter 
is  well    suited   to  the    semi -arid   districts  of  the 
West,  and  thrives  to  an  astonishing  degree  in  the 
bright   sunshine    of    the    Plains,    when    supplied 
with  moisture  by  irrigation.     It  is  perennial,  and 
several  cuttings  may  be  taken  each  season.     It  is 
one    of    the    leguminous    crops,    and,    therefore, 
appropriates  nitrogen  of  the  air.      Like  clover,  it 
has  a  deep  root- system. 

334.  But  the  king  of  all  grasses,  the  one  most 
useful,  most  easily  raised  and  harvested,  and  the 
most  productive,  is  Indian  corn,  or  maize.     In  a 
little  more  than  one  hundred  days  from  planting, 
from  four  to  six  tons  of  air-dried  stalks  and  from 
forty  to  fifty  bushels   of    grain   may  be    secured 
from  each  acre  ;  or  from  twelve  to  twenty  tons  of 
uncured  material  may  be  secured  for  the  silo. 

335.  Rye,  though  not  a  first-class  forage  or 
soiling  plant,  may  be  sown  in  the  fall,  cut  when 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE  193 

in  head,  and  followed  by  a  crop  of  Hungarian 
grass,  which  thrives  in  hot  weather;  and  this  in 
turn  may  be  followed  by  oats  and  peas.  There 
will  not  be  time  in  the  North  for  the  oats  and 
peas  to  mature,  but  they  will  remain  green 
through  November,  and  may  furnish  late  fall 
pasture,  or  may  be  left  on  the  ground  to  serve  as 
a  winter  cover-crop  (115). 

SUGGESTIONS  OJV  CHAPTER  XII 

304a.  It  is  impracticable  to  treat  of  specific  crops  in  a 
text-book.  Grass  and  forage  are  so  fundamental  to  the  con- 
ception of  agriculture,  however,  that  it  will  be  profitable  to 
discuss  them,  particularly  as  the  cultivation  of  them  illustrates 
some  of  the  underlying  principles  of  cropping.  For  advice  as 
to  the  handling  of  particular  crops,  the  enquirer  must  go  to 
books  on  the  special  topics. 

304ft.  The  true  grasses  constitute  the  natural  family  of 
plants  known  to  botanists  as  the  Grarninere  or  grass  family ; 
and  this  family  includes  all  the  cereal  grains,  as  wheat,  maize, 
and  rice.  In  its  largest  sense,  therefore,  the  word  grass  in- 
cludes many  plants  which  are  not  commonly  recognized  as 
grasses. 

304c.  The  term  grass  is  popularly  used  to  designate  the 
medium  sized  and  smaller  members  of  the  grass  family,  such 
as  ore  hard -grass,  timothy,  and  blue-grass,  and  not  the  larger 
grasses,  as  oats,  sugar-cane,  and  bamboo. 

304d.  The  clovers  are  sometimes  erroneously  called  grasses  ; 
and  "a  field  of  grass"  may  contain  many  kinds  of  plants.  There 
are  many  kinds  of  clover.  The  common  red  clover  is  Trifolium 
pratense ;  the  medium  red  is  T.  medium;  the  alsike  is  T.  hybri- 
dum,  with  rose-tinted  flowers  ;  the  white  or  creeping  clover, 
or  shamrock,  is  T.  repens ;  the  crimson,  used  for  cover-crops,  is 

M 


194 


THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


T.  incarnatum,  With  the  exception  of  Trifolium  repens,  these  are 
introduced  from  the  Old  World.  The  Japan  clover,  now  much 
prized  in  the  South,  is  really  not  a  clover,  but  belongs  to  a 
closely  related  genus.  It  is  known  to  botanists  as  Lespedeza 


Fig.  74.    A  cares,  or  sedge. 


Pig.  75.    A  common  sedge,  or  earex,  hi 
flower  and  when  ripe. 


striata.      It    was    introduced    accidentally    into     South    Carolina 
about  1849. 

304e.  'There  are  many  kinds  of  grass-like  plants.  The 
greater  part  of  these,  at  least  in  the  North,  belong  to  the 
closely  related  Sedge  family.  Sedges  are  easily  distinguished 
by  3-ranked  leaves  and  usually  by  3-angled  stems,  with  a 
pith  ;  and  the  flowers  are  very  unlike  grasses.  The  sedges 


PASTURES,     MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE 


195 


are  generally  worthless  as  forage  plants,  although  some  species 
in  the  West  and  South  afford  acceptable  cattle  ranges  when 
grass  is  not  to  be  had.  Figs.  74  and  75  show 
common  types  of  sedges,  such  as  are  frequent  in 
swales. 

305a.  In  specialty-farming  (4a),  abundance  of 
plant -food  and  humus  material  can  be  added  to 
the  soil,  and  rotations  may  not  be  needed  ;  but 
in  general  or  mixed  husbandry  some  kind  of  rota- 
tion is  essential.  Read  Chapter  xv.,  "Fertility  of 
the  Land." 

3056.  The  kind  of  rotation  must  be  determined 
by  the  soil  and  many  other  factors.  A  four-year 
rotation,  in  which  an  exacting  crop  follows  a  less 


Fig.  76. 

'  Timothy  (Phlntm 
pratente)  x%. 


Fig. 


.    June-grass  or  blue-grass 
(Poa  praUntit)  x%. 


Fig.  78.    Orchard-grass  (Daetylis 
glomerata)  x%. 


Fig.  79.    Tap-root  of 
red  clover.    (Compare  Fig.  33.) 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE  19? 

exacting  one,   and   in   which   the   clover    root-borer   is   kept   in 

check,  is  — 

Clover,  one  year  ; 

Maize,  with  or  without  manure  ; 

Oats  ; 

Wheat,  with  phosphates  and  manures. 

A  good  rotation  for  "fairly  fertile,  lightish  lands,"  is  — 

Clover,  one  year  ; 
Potatoes ; 
Wheat. 

A  rotation  for  weed -infested  land  is — 

Sod; 

Maize  : 

Potatoes  or  some  other  inter-tilled  crop  ; 

Oats  or  barley. 

307a.  A  permanent  pasture  is  one  which  is  to  remain  many 
years  without  plowing.  Some  pastures,  particularly  on  rocky  or 
rolling  land,  remain  undisturbed  for  a  generation  and  more. 
Bermuda  grass  and  Japan  clover  make 
permanent  pastures  in  many  parts  of  the 
South,  but  most  grasses  do  not  make  good 
sod  there.  In  distinction  to  permanent 
pastures  are  the  temporary  pastures  which 
are  a  part  of  a  rotation,  or  the  meadow 
which  is  pastured  after  the  hay  is  cut. 

311o.  The  familiar  Timothy  is  shown 
in  Figs.  76  and  80.  June-grass,  with 
a  flower  in  detail,  is  seen  in  Fig.  77. 
June-grass  is  a  common  grass  along  road- 
sides, ripening  very  early,  and  is  the  best 
grass  for  lawns.  Orchard-grass  is  illus- 
trated by  Fig.  78. 

312o.     The  word    host    is  here  used: 
in  a  different  sense  than  by  the  botanist 
and  entomologist  (292&).     Here  it  means 
a  helper  or  companion,  not  a  plant  upon  Fig  ^    Shallow  root-system 
which  another  plant  or  an  insect  preys.  0(  timothy. 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND     FORAGE 


199 


313a.  Observe  how  different  the  roots  of  clover  and  timothy 
are  (Figs.  79,  80).  One  feeds  in  the  subsoil  and  subsurface 
soil,  has  many  little  organisms  on  its  rootlets,  which  are  called 
nitrogen-fixers  (138);  that  is,  they  take  the  free  nitrogen  of 
the  soil  air,  and  it  then  becomes  of  use  to  the  plant. 
The  timothy  has  many  small  fibrous  roots,  which  remain  near 
the  surface,  and  have  no  nitrogen-fixing  organisms.  It  will  be 


Fig.  H2.    Alfalfa  or  lucerne  (Medicayo 
satica>  x>£. 


Fig.  83.    A  good  bottle  for 
seeds. 


seen  how  appropriate  it  is  to  raise  these  plants  together  :  one 
feeds  near  the  surface,  the  other  down  deep  in  the  soil ;  one 
is  long  lived,  the  other  short  lived. 

318a.  In  general  farming,  the  most  uniformly  good  crops 
are  nearly  always  obtained  when  a  rotation  is  used.  Fig.  81 
is  a  field  of  wheat,  in  a  rotation,  which  yielded  over  30  bushels 
to  the  acre. 

323«.  The  permanent  meadows  teach  many  valuable  lessons 
if  they  are  studied  closely.  Here  is  often  found  a  marked  illus- 
tration of  the  struggle  for  existence  and  of  the  survival  of  the 
fittest.  Here  the  farmer  can  give  little  help  by  tillage,  and 


200  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

small  opportunity    is  afforded  him   to  destroy  the  less  desirable 
plants,  that  the  more  desirable  ones  may  have  better  conditions. 

333a.  A  sprig  of  alfalfa  is  shown  in  Fig.  82.  It  has  small 
blue  flowers  in  little  clusters,  and  leaves  of  three  leaflets.  It  is 
grown  somewhat  in  the  East,  but  it  is  most  useful  in  the  dry 
regions  of  the  Plains  and  westward. 

335a.  All  the  plants  mentioned  in  this  chapter  should  be 
known  to  the  pupil.  In  some  schools,  herbarium  specimens 
me,?  be  made  of  them.  It  is  interesting  and  useful  to  collect 
seeds  of  farm  and  garden  plants.  The  school  house  may  very 
profitably  contain  a  cabinet  of  seeds.  Useful  bottles  are  the 
"specimen  tubes"  sold  by  wholesale  druggists  and  natural -history 
stores.  One  is  shown  in  Fig.  83.  It  is  %  inch  in  diameter  and 
3  inches  high,  and  can  be  bought,  without  the  corks,  for  about 
30  cents  per  dozen. 

For  references  on  grasses  and  forage  plants,  consult  Vol.  II, 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture;  Hunt's  "Forage  and  Fiber 
Crops  in  America;"  Voorhees'  "Forage  Crops;"  Spillman's  "  Farm 
Grasses  of  the  United  States."  For  the  cereals,  see  Hunt's 
"Cereals  in  America." 


PAET  III 
THE  ANIMAL,   AND   STOCK 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE   OFFICES   OF   THE   ANIMAL 
1.    The  Animal  and   the   Stock 

336.  In  an  agricultural   sense,  the  animal,  as 
a  representative  of  the  animal  kingdom,  has  six 
general  types  of  uses  or  offices  :  it  aids  in  main- 
taining the  fertility  of  the  land  ;    it  provides  a 
means  of  disposing  of  crops  ;  it,  or  its  products, 
may  be  of  intrinsic  value  in  supplying  food  and 
clothing;    it  works,  or  is  a  "beast  of   burden"; 
it  may  aid  in  keeping  the  farm  clean  of   weeds 
and  pests  ;  it  diversifies  agricultural  occupations ; 
it     affords     employment    for    labor    during    the 
inclement  months. 

337.  When   animals   are   raised    in    quantity, 
they  are  spoken  of  as  stock.     This  stock  may  be 
cattle,    turkeys,    sheep,    ducks,    swine,    fish,    or 
horses ;    but  in  common  speech  the  word  is  ap- 
plied mostly  to  quadrupeds  (7). 

(201) 


202  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

2.    The  Animal   In  Its  Relation  to  the    Soil 

338.  The  first  great  resource  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  texture  and  richness  of  the  soil  is 
herbage  (108-111)  ;  the  second  is  farm  manures. 
When  stock  is  pastured,  practically  all  the  ma- 
nure is  returned  to  the  farm  ;  but  when  it  is 
housed,  much  of  the  manure  is  commonly  lost 
through  the  carelessness  of  the  farmer  (120, 


339.  The  greater  the  proportion  of  stock  to 
crop,  the  more  fertile  the  farm  should  be  ;  for  if 
the  farmer  must  buy  feed,  the  manure  is  gain, 
so  far  as  the  farm  is  concerned.  In  general 
mixed  husbandry,  stock  is  necessary  in  order  to 
maintain  fertility,  as  well  as  for  its  direct  value  ; 
but  in  intensive  (Ilia)  and  specialty  -farm  ing 
(4a)  manures  may  be  bought. 


3.   The  Animal  in  Its  Relation  to  the  Crop 

340.  There  is  not  sufficient  market  for  all  the 
crops  which  the  land  can  raise.     Therefore,  some 
of  the  crop  may  be  fed   to   the  animal  and  sold 
as  meat,  or  butter,  or  eggs. 

341.  There  is  an  important  secondary  gain  in 
this  feeding-out  of  the  crop,  for  part  of  the  crop 
is  returned  to  the  land  in  the  manure.      Some 


THE    OFFICES    OF    THE    ANIMAL  203 

crops,  as  clover,  carry  away  much  more  plant- 
food,  if  they  are  sold  off  the  farm,  than  the 
animal  products  which,  in  large  part,  are  elabo- 
rated from  them. 

4.   The  Animal  Has  Intrinsic  Value  to  Man 
4a.  As  articles  of  food 

342.  Animals     are    direct    sources    of    food. 
They  contribute   the   various  kinds  of   flesh,    as 
beef,  pork,  poultry,  fish. 

343.  Animals    are    indirect   sources    of    food, 
contributing  of  their  products,  as  eggs,  milk. 

344.  Animals    also    contribute    materials     to 
various   manufactured   food  products,  as  cheese, 
condensed  milk,  butter. 

46.  As  articles  used  in  the  arts 

345.  Animals  contribute    materials  for   cloth- 
ing.     Amongst   such    products    are    leather   and 
wool.       They   also     afford     material     for    many 
articles  of  personal  use,  as  feathers,  bone,  hair, 
glue,  horn. 

346.  Animals  contribute  largely  to   fertilizing 
materials,  particularly  to    substances    containing 
nitrogen    and    phosphoric    acid.      Amongst   such 
materials,  the  most  important  are    bones,   dried 
blood,    tankage  ;     of    secondary   importance   are 


204  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

hair -waste,    wool -waste,    fish -scrap,    hoof -meal, 
various  forms  of  horn. 

4c    As  companions 

347.  Many  animals  are  pets,  or  companions  to 
man,  and  the  rearing  of  them  is  a  species  of 
agriculture.  Of  such  are  dogs,  cats,  rabbits, 
tame  birds,  and  others. 


5.  The  Animal  as  a  Beast  of  Burden 

348.  The  animal  aids  in  tilling  the  soil.     How- 
ever much  steam  may  be  utilized  for  propelling 
implements  of  tillage,  the  horse  and  the  ox  will 
still  be  indispensable  to  agriculture.      Even  the 
tramping  of  the  animals  over  loose  soils  tends  to 
compact  and  improve  the  land  (2506). 

349.  The  animal  supplies  means  of  transpor- 
tation.    Even  with  the  advent  of  the  electric  car, 
the  bicycle  and  the  horseless  carriage,  the  driv- 
ing  horse   will  remain  an  important  part  of  the 
farm  equipment. 

350.  The  animal   also  supplies  power  for  the 
driving   of    farm    machinery,    as    threshing   and 
feed-cutting  machinery.      On  large  farms,  steam 
power  must  come  to  be  more  and  more  important, 
but  on  the   smaller  ones  animal  power  will  long 
remain  an  indispensable  factor. 


THE    OFFICES    OF    THE    ANIMAL  205 

6.  The  Animal  as  a  Pest-destroyer 

351.  The  browsing  of  animals  aids  in  keeping 
weeds  and  wild  growths    in   check.     It  is  well- 
known  that  pasturing  with  sheep  is  one  of  the 
best  means  of  cleaning  a  weedy  area. 

352.  Animals   may  keep    insect   and  fungous 
pests   in    check    by   eating    the    fallen   fruit   or 
foliage.     It  is  well  known  that  swine  keep  the 
apple-worm   in    check     by   eating     the    windfall 
apples.     Swine  also  root  out  and  eat  the  white 
grub  and  other  insects. 

7.  The  Animal  Diversifies  Labor 

353.  The    animal    itself    introduces    diversity 
into  farming.     It  also   demands  the  growing  of 
diverse  crops.      It   enforces    rotations   of    crops. 
Diverse  interests  educate  the  farmer,  by  demand- 
ing attention  to  many  problems. 

354.  Some  of  the  labor  which  is  employed  in 
summer   in   the   growing   of    crops    may  be  em- 
ployed   in    winter    in    caring    for    stock.       The 
animal,  therefore,  introduces  continuousness  into 
farming.     The  best  laborers  demand  employment 
the  year  round. 


206  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


SUGGESTIONS    ON    CHAPTER    XIII 

338a.  It  is  remarkable  how  the  value  of  manurt  increases 
with  the  age  of  the  country  and  the  intensity  of  the  agriculture. 
This  comes  as  a  result  of  experience,  wholly  without  the  teachings 
of  science,  although  science  explains  why  manure  is  valuable, 
and  points  out  many  of  the  limitations  of  its  use.  The  pros- 
perity of  the  German  peasant  is  measured  by  the  size  of  his 
manure-pile.  Gardeners  place  the  greatest  dependence  upon 
manure  ;  but  they  want  it  well  rotted, — which  means  that  they 
not  only  want  its  plant-food  in  the  most  available  condition,  but 
that  they  desire  to  utilize  it  largely  for  its  mechanical  effect  in 
loosening  the  soil  with  which  it  is  mixed. 

341a.  A  ton  of  clover  hay  removes  about  forty  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  ten  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  forty  pounds  of 
potash.  A  ton  of  butter  removes  about  two  and  one-half  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  and  less  than  one  pound  each  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash. 

346a.  "Tankage  is  a  highly  nitrogenous  product,  and  con- 
sists chiefly  of  the  dried  animal  wastes  from  the  large  abattoirs 
and  slaughtering  establishments.  It  is  variable  in  its  composition, 
since  it  includes  the  otherwise  unusable  parts  of  the  carcass,  as 
bone,  tendons,  flesh,  hair,  etc.  The  portions  of  this  from  the 
different  animals  not  only  vary  in  their  composition,  but  they  are 
used  in  varying  proportions,  which  naturally  results  in  an  ex- 
tremely variable  product.  What  is  known  as  'concentrated 
tankage,'  which  is  obtained  by  evaporating  the  fluids  which  con- 
tain certain  extractive  animal  matter,  is  the  richest  in  nitrogen, 
and  is  more  uniform  in  character  than  the  others  ;  and  because  of 
its  fineness  of  division  and  physical  character,  the  nitrogen  con- 
tained in  it  is  also  more  active  than  in  the  other  forms." — Voor- 
hees,  Fertilizers,  43. 

346&.  Many  other  animal  substances  are  used  for  fertilizers. 
Those  which  are  used  for  their  nitrogen  are  dried  blood,  dried 
meat,  dried  and  ground  fish,  sea  crabs,  hoof  meal.  Those  which 
are  used  for  phosphates  are  the  various  forms  and  preparations  of 


THE    OFFICES    OF    THE    ANIMAL  207 

bone,  as  raw,  boiled,  steamed  bone,  bone  ash  and  bone-black  ; 
also,  dried  fish. 

351a.  With  all  the  remarks  which  have  now  been  made  on 
weeds  (22b,  101,  lOla,  117,  267,  267a,268),  the  pupil  will  see  that 
the  only  fundamental  and  permanent  way  to  escape  weeds  is 
through  better  larm  management  ;  and,  to  a  less  extent,  the  same 
conclusion  will  apply  to  insect  and  fungous  pests.  "I  went  by  the 
field  of  the  slothful,  and  by  the  vineyard  of  the  man  void  of 
understanding  ;  and  lo,  it  was  all  grown  over  with  thorns,  and 
nettles  had  covered  the  face  thereof,  and  the  stone  wall  thereof 
was  broken  down." — Proverbs  xxiv.,  80,  31. 

354a.  Upon  the  desirability  of  continuous  employment  for 
farm  labor,  Roberts  speaks  as  follows  when  writing  of  rotations  : 
"The  baleful  results  of  raising  a  single  or  few  products  in  ex- 
tended districts  may  be  seen  in  California  and  the  great  wheat 
districts  of  the  Northwest.  In  such  localities,  there  is  little  or  no 
true,home  life,  with  its  duties  and  restraints  ;  men  and  boys  are 
herded  together  like  cattle,  sleep  where  they  may,  and  subsist  as 
best  they  can.  The  work  is  hard,  and  from  sun  to  sun  for  two  or 
three  months,  when  it  abruptly  ceases,  and  the  workmen  are  left 
to  find  employment  as  best  they  may,  or  adopt  the  life  and  habits 
of  the  professional  tramp.  It  is  difficult  to  name  anything  more 
demoralizing  to  men,  and  especially  to  boys,  than  this  inter- 
mittent labor  ;  and  the  higher  the  wages  paid  and  the  shorter  the 
period  of  service,  the  more  demoralizing  the  effect.  If  there 
were  no  other  reason  for  practicing  a  rotation  with  a  variety  of 
plants,  the  welfare  of  the  workman  and  his  family  should  form  a 
sufficient  one."— Fertility  of  the  Land,  369. 

For  references  on  live-stock,  consult  Vol.  Ill,  Cyclopedia  of 
American  Agriculture;  Roberts'  "The  Horse;"  Plumb's  "Types 
and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals;"  Mayo's  "Care  of  Animals"  (Dis- 
i-:is.-s  of  Animals). 


CHAPTER  XIV 
HOW  THE  ANIMAL   LIVES 

JAMES  LAW 

1.  The  Cell,  and  Its  Part  in  the  Vital 

Processes 
la.   The  cell 

355.  The  element  in  the  body  that  carries  on 
vital  processes  is  the  cell ;  for  life  in  the  animal, 
like  life  in  the  plant   (Chap,  viii.),  is  dependent 
on  the   existence  of   cells.     Each  animal    cell  is 
a    soft,    jelly-like    substance,    held    together    by 
an   exceedingly    delicate    network    of    fibers.      It 
might   be   compared  to  a  microscopic  particle  of 
raw  white  of   egg. 

16.  Single -celled  animals 

356.  The    lowest     animals    in    the    scale     of 
existence   are  formed  of   a  single  cell,  which   in 
itself   performs   all   the   functions  of    life.      This 
cell   can  move   from  place   to  place,  by   flowing 
out    from   its    original    globular   form,  so  as   to 
make   a    projecting  arm,    and    by  continuing   to 
flow     in    the     same    direction    until     its    whole 
substance   has   passed   into  the  new  position. 

(208) 


HOW    THE     ANIMAL    LIVES  209 

357.  This  cell  can  flow  out  so  as  to  surround 
microscopic  particles  and  draw  them  into  itself ; 
these  it   can  digest  and  use  to  increase  its  own 
substance.      By   reversing    this    process,   it   can 
throw  out   indigestible  and   waste   materials.     It 
can  absorb,  digest   and  build  into  its  own  sub- 
stance   nutritive    matters     already    dissolved    in 
water;    and  it  can  drive  out  waste,  worn  out  and 
injurious  matters  which  it  holds  in  solution  in  its 
own  liquid. 

358.  When  the   cell   grows  too  large,  it  can 
divide  into  two   independent  parts,  each  having 
all  the  vital  powers  which  belonged  to  the  parent 
cell   or   globule. 

359.  Thus  the  single -celled  animal   can  make 
of  any  part  of  its  body  limbs  for  moving,  hands 
for   grasping,    fingers    for    feeling,    stomach    for 
digesting,    channels    for    the    circulation    of    its 
nutritive  liquids,  as  well   as  organs  for  excretion 
and  for  the  increase  of  its  kind. 


Ic.  Many -celled  animals 

360.  In  all  the  higher  animals  there  is  not  one 
cell,  but  myriads  ;  and  these  cells  are  no  less 
essential  to  life  and  to  the  healthy  performance 
of  all  vital  functions  than  is  the  single  cell  of 
the  lowliest  organism.  In  the  complex  animal 
body,  however,  the  cells  build  up  solid  tissues 

N 


210  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

outside  themselves.  As  each  cell  becomes  im- 
prisoned in  a  minute  cavity  in  such  solid 
structure,  it  is  robbed  of  those  common  powers 
or  functions  which  belong  to  the  single -celled 
animal,  and  is  specialized  for  the  performance 
of  one  constant,  unchanging  round  of  work. 
Each  cell  has  its  own  work  to  do. 

361.  Cells  may  carry  on  processes    of    nutri- 
tion.     Some  cells   lie  in  the  microscopic    spaces 
left  in  the  hard  bone,  and  conduct  the  nutrition 
and   changes    in  its    substance.      Other  cells   lie 
in    the    substance    of    muscle    or    sinew,    or    of 
brain,   or    of    some    other    tissue,   and     no    one 
of    these     can    construct    bone    nor     any    other 
structure  than  that   in  which   it   lies.      All   such 
cells   are   engaged   in   carrying   on   the   nutrition 
and    growth    of    their    respective     tissues,     and 
are  reserved  for  this  work  only. 

362.  Cells   may  carry  on   nervous    processes, 
being    set   apart   for   vital  work  of    a   kind   not 
directly  connected  with  nutrition.     Nerve  cells,— 
found   in   the    brain,    spinal-marrow,    and    some 
other  parts, — receive    impressions    brought    over 
the  nerve  cords  from  distant   parts  of  the  body. 
They  generate    and    send    out    nerve     force    to 
other  parts.     Some  of  these  cells  are  set  in  mo- 
tion by  mental   acts. 

363.  Certain  other  cells,  which  line  microsco- 
pic sacs  in  organs  known  as  glands,  select  from 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  211 

the  blood  the  secretion  which  that  gland  is  ap- 
pointed to  furnish,  and  pour  it  out  through  the 
gland  ducts.  The  secretion  from  one  gland  is 
nutritious,  as  in  the  case  of  milk ;  that  from 
another  is  digestive,  as  in  the  secretion  of  the 
stomach;  and  from  a  third  it  is  waste  matter,  like 
sweat.  The  selection  from  the  nutritive  liquid  of 
the  blood  is  the  work  of  the  individual  cells,  and 
is  always  the  same  for  each  kind  of  gland. 

364.  The  cells  of  some  glands  construct  a  new 
substance,  which  is  not  secreted  but  poured  back 
into  the  blood.     Thus  the  liver  makes  glycogen, 
which    passes  into   grape    sugar,  and    serves  for 
the  production  of   heat,  muscular  work   and   nu- 
trition. 

365.  Some  cells  on  the  walls  of  the  intestines 
absorb     nutritive    and    other    matters    from    the 
liquid  contents  of  the  bowels  and  pass   them  on 
into  the  circulating  (blood  and  lymph)  vessels. 

366.  Besides    these    cells    which    become    im- 
prisoned in  their  particular  tissues,  and  the  work 
of  which  is  restricted  to  the  conducting  of    the 
growth  or  other  functions  of   such  tissues,  there 
is  a  large  class  which   floats  free  in   the  liquids 
of   the    body.      The  red   and    white    blood    glob- 
ules   and     lymph     cells    are    examples.       These 
globules   or  corpuscles   circulate   in  all    parts  of 
the   body,  thus   suggesting  the    freedom  of    the 
one -celled    animal.     But  limitations  have  beeu 


212  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

set  even  to  these,  the  red  globules  being 
mainly  carriers  of  oxygen,  while  the  white  also 
have  restricted  functions. 


2.   The  Food  of  Animals 
2a.   Kind  of  food 

367.  Food   may   be    either    vegetable   or  ani- 
mal.      Many    animals,     as    horses,    cattle     and 
sheep,   live  on   vegetables,   or  are    herbivorous ; 
while  others,  like   foxes  and   wolves,  eat  animal 
food    only,    or    are    carnivorous.      The    food    of 
the   herbivorous    animal    has    its    nutritive    prin- 
ciples  in   a   less  concentrated  condition,  and  the 
herbivora    are     accordingly    supplied    with    more 
capacious    digestive    organs.       The    same    holds 
true   of    grain-feeders   and    grass-feeders   among 
the  herbivora.     The   grain -fed    horse   has   much 
smaller  stomach  and   intestines    than   the   grass- 
fed  ox,  and  the  well-fed  domestic  rabbit   has  a 
much  more  spacious   alimentary   canal   than    his 
wild    ancestor. 

368.  Artificial  selection  and  forcing  of  meat- 
producing    animals    has    a   similar    effect.     The 
scrub  ox,  Texas  steer  and  buffalo  have  light  ab- 
dominal contents,  while  the  pampered  short-horn, 
Hereford,  or  black-polled    ox    has    them    heavy 
and  bulky.     In  the  carnivora  they  are  still  more 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  213 

restricted.  The  intestine  of  the  ox  is  about  160 
feet  long,  that  of  the  horse  90  feet,  and  that 
of  the  dog  only  12  to  14  feet. 

26.    Food  constituents 

369.  All    foods    must    contain   chemical    con- 
stituents which  will  serve  to  repair  the  waste  of 
the  body,  to  develop  growing  tissue,  and  to  sup- 
ply materials  for  the  different  sec,  ret  ions. 

370.  Aside    from    mineral    matters,    all     food 
constituents  which  can  build  up  the  tissues  must 
contain  nitrogen,  the  element  which   forms  four- 
fifths  of  the  atmosphere,  and  which  is  an  essen- 
tial  part   of   all    body  tissues.      As   familiar  ex- 
amples  of    such    nitrogenous   foods    or    aliments 
may    be  named    white  of    egg    (albumin),    milk 
curd  (casein),  and   one  of  the   soluble    parts  of 
flour  (gluten). 

371.  As  common  forms  of  foods  that  eontaii? 
no  nitrogen,  and  which  cannot  form  tissues,  ar& 
starch,  sugar   and    fats.       These  are   used    up   or 
burned  in  the  system    to    produce    body  heat,  to 
stimulate  the  contraction  of  muscles,  and  to  fur- 
nish   secretions    which    are    free    from    nitrogen, 
such  as  sugar  and  butter -fat  in  milk,  and  sugar 
(more  properly  glycogen  or  sugar- former)  in  the 
liver. 

372.  Both    sugar   and    fat,   however,   can    be 
formed  in  the    body  from    nitrogenous    food,  as 


214  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

in  the  milk  of  the  carnivorous  animal  when  red 
flesh  only  has  been  fed.  In  this  case  the  origi- 
nal nitrogenous  food  is  broken  up  into  two  or 
more  chemical  products,  one  of  which  contains 
only  carbon  and  hydrogen,  or  these  with  the 
addition  of  oxygen,  while  all  of  the  nitrogen 
goes  to  other  product  or  products. 

373.  Mineral  salts  (182a)  form  a  third   group 
of  food  principles.    These  are  essential  in  repair- 
ing the  waste  of  tissues,  and   in   forming  secre- 
tions like  milk,  bile  and  gastric  juice. 

374.  The    ideal    food    contains    all    of    these 
three   groups  in   forms  which   can   be  dissolved, 
digested  and  assimilated  into  the  animal  tissues. 
Milk   is   an  ideal   food.     In  it  the    non- nitroge- 
nous aliments — sugar,  butter -fat — are  united  with 
the  nitrogenous — casein,   albumin, — and  with  the 
salts  in  proportions  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
system. 

375.  A     well-balanced    ration    for    the    adult 
animal  is   one  in  whieh  these  different  classes  of 
food  constituents  bear  a  somewhat  definite  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  due  allowance  being  made  for 
the  uses  to  which  the  animal  is  put.     The  grow- 
ing, working  or  milking  animal  requires  more  of 
the  nitrogenous  elements,  while  the  fattening  ani- 
mal may   exchange    much    of  this  for  the   non- 
nitrogenous. 

376.  The  living  body,  however,  is  not   like  a 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  215 

simple  machine,  which  can,  in  all  cases,  turn  out 
a  product  exactly  corresponding  to  the  chemical 
food  elements  which  are  turned  into  it.  The 
vital  element  has  always  to  be  reckoned  with. 
One  animal  demands  a  little  more  of  this  class  of 
aliment,  and  another  a  little  more  of  that,  in 
order  to  secure  the  best  results ;  while  in  all  cases 
palatability  and  facility  of  digestion  have  a 
controlling  influence. 

3.   Digestion  of  Food 
3a.    What  digestion  is 

377.  Digestion    is   the   process   by   means   of 
which   the  food   becomes  dissolved  so  as  to  be 
taken  up    by  the   blood.     It   takes  place   in  the 
alimentary     canal, — the     mouth,     stomach,     and 
intestines. 

378.  Digestion  takes   place  under  the   action 
of   different    secretions,   each    of   which   operates 
on  special  constituents  of   the  food.     Considered 
in    the    order    in    which    they   mingle   with    the 
food,  these  digestive   secretions  are :     (a)   saliva; 
(6)   gastric  juice;   (c)  bile,    (d)   pancreatic  juice, 
(e)  intestinal  juice. 

36.    The  saliva 

379.  Saliva  is  furnished  by  a  group  of  glands 
located    under   the    tongue,   in   the    cheeks,   and 


216  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

under  the  ears.  They  discharge  their  secretions 
into  the  mouth.  In  grain -eating  birds,  similar 
glands  surround  the  crop,— an  enlargement  of 
the  gullet  in  the  region  of  the  neck. 

380.  A  ferment    (ptyalin)    in    the   saliva  acts 
on  the  starch  in  the  food,  causing  it  to  chemi- 
cally  unite    with    additional    water   and    become 
transformed  into  sugar.     Raw  starch  is  insoluble 
in  water,  and  cannot   pass  into  the  circulation  ; 
but   the  sugar  formed   from  it   is  freely  soluble, 
can    be    readily   absorbed    into    the    blood,    and 
contributes  to  the  activity,  growth  and   nourish- 
ment of  the  body. 

381.  The   ptyalin  acts  slowly  on   raw   starch, 
and  much  more  rapidly  on  boiled  starch,  so  that 
cooking  of   vegetable  food  favors  its    digestion. 
It    acts    best    in    the    absence   of    acids.      It   is 
less  active  when  weak  organic  acids  are  present, 
and  its  action  is  arrested  in  the  stomach  by  the 
free  muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid. 

382.  In  animals  with  one  stomach,  therefore, 
it  is    important   that   the  food  should    be    thor- 
oughly masticated  and  saturated  with  saliva,  and 
not   bolted  whole,  or  imperfectly  insalivated.     In 
ruminants    (or    cud-chewing   animals),  as   cattle, 
sheep  and  goats,  the  food  is  long  delayed  in  the 
first   three   stomachs,   in  which   any  slight  sour- 
ness  which   may    exist   is   due   to    mild    organic 
acids    only ;      and,     therefore,     there    is     ample 


HOW    THE     ANIMAL     LIVES  217 

time  and    opportunity   for   the   full    digestion   of 
the  starch. 

383.  Digestion    is    further    favored    in    these 
animals   by  the   chewing   of  the   cud,  by  means 
of    which    the     solid     portions    are    returned    to 
the   mouth,  morsel    by    morsel,    to    be    leisurely 
ground   down    and    again   saturated  with   saliva. 
Digestion   is   more    thoroughly    accomplished    in 
the    third      stomach,     in    which     the     food      is 
ground    to     the    finest     pulp     between    the    one 
hundred   folds,   large    and    small,    which    fill    its 
interior. 

384.  This    thorough     breaking    up     or    com- 
minution prepares  the  food  for  the  easy  digestion 
of  its  nitrogenous  principles  in  the  fourth  stom- 
ach.     The   removal   of   the    starch   renders  even 
the    finest    particles    of   food    more    porous,  and 
permits    the    prompt   and   speedy  action   of    the 
stomach  juices  on  its  whole  substance. 

385.  For  some  time  after  birth,  the  salivary 
glands   produce  little  saliva,  and  still    less   ptya- 
lin.     This  is  in   keeping  with  the  exclusive  milk 
diet,  in    which   there   is  no  starch    to   be    acted 
upon.     For  this  reason,  any  starchy  food  in  the 
early  days    of    life   is    out    of   place;    for,    as    it 
cannot    be    changed    into    sugar,    nor    absorbed 
until    it    has    passed    through    the    stomach    and 
reached    the     intestine,   it    is    liable    to    ferment 
and   to  form  irritant  products,   and  indigestion. 


218  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

The     addition    of     such    elements    to    the    food 
should  be  made  later  and  a  little  at  a  time. 

3c.   The  gastric  juice 

386.  The    stomach    produces    three    digestive 
principles,  which  may  be    separately  considered  : 
muriatic  or   hydrochloric   acid,  pepsin,  the  milk- 
curdling  ferment.     These  materials  comprise  the 
gastric    juice. 

387.  Free  muriatic  acid  is  strongly  antiseptic, 
especially  checking   such   fermentations   as  occur 
in  the  alkaline  or  neutral  saliva,  in  the  first  three 
stomachs'   of    ruminants   or  in   the    crop   of    the 
bird.     This  exposure  of   the  food  successively  to 
alkaline  saliva    and    acid   gastric    juice    kills    off 
myriads  of  bacterial  ferments  which  would  other- 
wise  reach    the    intestine,  to    prove    irritant    or 
poisonous.      Many  still  pass  into  the  intestine  in 
masses  of  undigested  food,   or   because  they  can 
survive     both    alkaline    and     acid    solutions,    or 
because  they  have  passed  into   the   condition  of 
spore,  which,  like  the   dried   seed  of    plants,   is 
comparatively  indestructible. 

388.  The  muriatic  acid  further  softens,  disin- 
tegrates, and   dissolves    the   various   nitrogenous 
foocl  principles  (coagulated  albumin,  fibrin,   gela- 
tin, casein  and  vegetable  gluten). 

389.  Pepsin  is  a  ferment  which  is  secreted  in 


HOW    THE     ANIMAL    LIVES  219 

glands  found  in  the  end  of  the  stomach  nearest 
to  the  intestine.  It  acts  on  the  nitrogenous 
principles  in  the  food,  which  are  made  to  take 
up  water,  and  to  change  into  a  much  more 
stable  and  diffusible  liquid  called  a  peptone. 

390.  Peptones  of  a  great  number  of  different 
kinds    are   produced  from   the  varied  food  prin- 
ciples—from    such    as    fibrin,    albumin,    gluten, 
casein.     The  peptones   all  agree  in  certain  com- 
mon   characters  :     (a)    they  are  easily  and  com- 
pletely  soluble    in  water     (fibrin,   coagulated   al- 
bumin and  casein  themselves,  are    not  soluble); 
(b)    they    filter    rapidly    through     animal     mem- 
branes, such  as  a  bladder  (the  agents  from  which 
they    are    derived    do    not) ;     (r)    they   are    not 
thrown   down  as   solids   by  boiling  or  by  strong 
acids    (albumin    and    casein  are    precipitated  by 
strong  acids,  and  albumin  by  boiling). 

391.  Peptones   are   thus    easily  absorbed   into 
the  blood,  while  the   absorption  of    the  original 
principles  from  which  they  are  derived  would  be 
exceedingly  slow  and  difficult.     Pepsin  acts  much 
more  rapidly   in   an  acid   medium,   BO  that  it   is 
specially  adapted  to  cooperate  with  the  muriatic 
acid. 

392.  The  milk -curdling  ferment  is  the  product 
of    the    gastric    glands.      It    is   utilized    in    the 
manufacture  of  cheese.     Like  pepsin,  it  acts  best 
in  the  presence  of   muriatic   acid.      One  part  of 


220  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

this    ferment    will    coagulate    800,000    parts    of 
casein. 

393.  In  birds  the   gastric  juice  is  secreted  in 
an   enlargement    of    the    gullet    (proventriculus) 
just    above    the    gizzard.      The    strong    muscles 
and    cartilaginous    lining    of    the    gizzard    serve, 
with   the   pebbles   swallowed,  to   grind  down  the 
food   into  a   fine    pulp   and  to   mix  it  intimately 
with  the  gastric  juice. 

3d.  Intestinal  digestion 

394.  Under  the  action  of  the  saliva  and  gas- 
tric juice,  the  greater  part  of  the  starch  and  ni- 
trogenous matter  is   usually  digested   before   the 
food  materials   pass  from  the   stomach  into   the 
intestines.     The  products  of  digestion  are  mainly 
sugar  and  peptones.     The  fatty  matters, — set  free 
by  the  digestion  of  their  nitrogenous  envelopes,— 
the    undigestible    portions,    and    such    digestible 
matters  as  are  as  yet  not  acted  on,  pass  on  into 
the    intestines,  mostly  in  a  finely  divided  semi- 
fluid condition. 

395.  In  the  intestines,  the  materials  are  acted 
on  by  bile,  pancreatic  juice,  and  intestinal  juice. 
These  fluids  are  alkaline. 

396.  Bile    is    secreted    by   the    liver.       It    is 
poured  into  the  intestines  a  few  inches  beyond  the 
stomach.     It  renders  the  contents  alkaline,  checks 
fermentation,   stimulates   the    movements    of    the 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  221 

bowels,  and  transforms  their  fatty  contents  into  an 
emulsion  which  penetrates  an  animal  membrane, 
and  is  absorbed  with  great  rapidity. 

397.  Bile   has,    besides,    a   limited    power   of 
changing  starch  into  sugar.     It  is  also  useful  in 
carrying  waste  matters  out  of  the  body. 

398.  Pancreatic  juice  is  poured   into   the  in- 
testines by  a  canal  which  in  certain  animals  unites 
with  the   bile   duct.      It   contains    at   least   four 
different  ferments :      (a)    Amylopsin,    which,    at 
the  body  temperature,  rapidly   transforms   starch 
and   even  gum   into   sugar,  thus  completing  any 
imperfect    work    of     the    saliva ;     (6)     trypsin, 
which,  in   an  alkaline   liquid,    changes     nitroge- 
nous matters    into   peptones,   thus    finishing  any 
imperfect  work  of  the  stomach ;   (c)  a  milk -cur- 
dling ferment. 

399.  The   pancreatic  juice,   as    a  whole,  acts 
like  the  bile  in  causing  fats  to  form   emulsions. 
It  even  breaks  up  the  fats    into  fatty  acids  and 
glycerin. 

400.  Intestinal  juice  is  a  complex  mixture  of 
the  different   secretions   already  named,  together 
with  the  products  of  the  glands  of  the  intestinal 
walls.      The    secretions   of    these   walls  act   like 
pancreatic  juice,  only  less  powerfully. 

401.  As  a  whole,  the  digestive  agents  thrown 
into   the  intestines  cover  the  whole  field  of   di- 
gestion, and   largely  make  up  for  any  defective 


222  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

work  of  the  saliva  and  gastric  juice.  Even  in 
cases  in  which  the  stomach  has  been  removed, 
the  intestines  have  taken  up  its  functions  and 
have  maintained  a  fair  measure  of  health. 


4.  Absorption  of  the  Digested  Matters 

4a.  Hoiv  absorption  takes  place 

402.  The   food   principles,   digested   or   emul- 
sionized,  as  before  stated,  are  now  absorbed  into 
the  blood  and  lymph  vessels,  chiefly  through  the 
villi  of  the  intestines.     These  villi  are  minute  hair- 
like  projections  from  the  lining  membrane,  from 
ro  to  TO  of  an  inch  in  length.     They  are  covered 
with  soft  cells,  the   deeper  ends  of  which  reach 
the  capillary  blood-vessels  and   lymphatics   occu- 
pying the   interior  of  each  villus. 

403.  The  cells  of  the  villus  take  in  the  liquid 
products  of  digestion,  and  pass  them  on  into  the 
vessels  beneath.      By  a  muscular   contraction  of 
the  villus,  these  vessels   are  emptied  at  frequent 
intervals  into  the  larger  veins  and  lymphatics  in 
the  walls  of  the  intestines. 

404.  The     interior     of     the     small     intestine, 
which     immediately     follows     the     stomach,     is 
covered    throughout    by   these   villi.      Owing    to 
the    rapid    absorption    conducted    by  them,    the 
soluble   contents   of   this   intestine   are   in  great 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  223 

part  removed   and  transferred  to  the  circulatory 
system  before  the  large  intestine  is  reached. 

46.    Destination  of  the  rich  Hood  from  the  intestines 

405.  The  veins  from  the   stomach   and   intes- 
tines  carry  the  rich    products   of   digestion    into 
the  capillaries  of  the  liver.     Here  they  not  only 
contribute  to  produce  bile,  but  also  new  combi- 
nations of  nutritive  and  other  compounds,  which 
pass  into  the  general  circulation. 

406.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  new 
products  is  sugar,  which,  as  already  stated  (372), 
is  formed  even  in   the  liver  of  animals  fed  on  a 
strictly  carnivorous  diet.     The  importance  of  this 
product  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the 
liver    is   very  large   in    the    young  and    rapidly- 
growing  animal,  and   also   in    mature  animals  of 
a  meat -producing  race :    these  animals  have  ex- 
traordinary powers  of  digestion  and  fattening. 

407.  Another  important  function  of  the  liver 
is    the    transformation, — largely    by    union    with 
additional    oxygen, — of    worn-out    or    effete    red 
globules,  and  of  much  of  the  useless  nitrogenous 
material  in  the  blood,  into  urea  and  other  solu- 
ble products.     These  products  are  finally  passed 
off   by  the  kidneys.     They  afford   a  stimulus  to 
secretion  by  the    kidneys,  and   supply  an   abun- 
dance of  material  which  can  pass  readily  through 


224  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

these    organs    without   causing   irritation  or  de- 
rangement. 

408.  Another  important  liver  function  is  the 
transformation  of  peptones  (which  are  poisonous 
when  thrown  into  the  blood  in  any  considerable 
quantity)  into  products  which  are  non- poisonous, 
and    are   capable    of    assimilation.       These    pro- 
ducts   form     tissue,    or    fulfill     some   other    im- 
portant  use  in   the   body. 

409.  Still  another  important  use  of  the  liver 
is    to    transform   into    harmless    compounds    the 
poisonous    products    of    bacterial    fermentations 
(such    as    ptomaines  and,    toxins).     These   occur 
in  the  contents  of  the  intestine,  and  might  often 
prove   deadly    if   allowed   to   pass   this   guardian 
sentinel — the  liver — in  any  considerable  amount. 


5.   Respiration,   or   Breathing 
5a.    What  breathing  is 

410.  Breathing  consists  in  the  substitution  of 
oxygen  of  the  air  for  carbon  dioxid  in  the  blood 
and  tissues  of  the  animal  body.  It  results  in 
the  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with 
certain  organic  constituents  of  the  system  ;  and 
it  fits  these  constituents  for  various  uses,  or  for 
elimination  as  waste  matters. 


HOW  THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  225 

411.  In    the    main,    the    air    is    changed    in 
breathing  as  follows  : 

Carbon 
Oxygen      Nitrogen      dioxid 

Inspired,  or  breathed-in  air  contains  .    .    .  20.81         79.15  .04 

Expired,  or  breathed-out  air  contains  .    .    .  16.033      79.557      4.38 

In  every  100  parts,  air  loses,  by  being  breathed, 
about  4  parts  of  oxygen,  and  gains  about  4 
parts  of  carbon  dioxid. 

412.  In    breathing,  the    air    is    also    charged 
with    water  vapor  and  with  small    quantities  of 
ammonia    and   marsh    gas.      It   also   receives   a 
volatile    organic    matter,    which    may   be    fo3tid, 
and   when  condensed   in  water  soon  develops  a 
putrid  odor. 

413.  In  the  breathing  process,  the  blood  and 
the   air    are    brought    into    the    closest    possible 
contact.      One -celled    animals    breathe     through 
the  entire  surface,  fishes  through  gills  waved  in 
the   water,    from    which    they   abstract    oxygen, 
frogs  through    the    walls    of    a    simple   air -sac, 
in  which  the  blood-vessels  circulate.     In  warm- 
blooded    animals,    this    sac    or    lung   is   divided 
throughout   into  myriads  of    minute   air- sacs   or 
cells,  varying    from   7^0    to    TO    of    an    inch    in 
diameter.     The  walls  are  so   thin  that  the  blood 
flowing    through  their    capillary    vessels  is  con- 
stantly exposed,   on   two   sides,  to  the  air  with 
which    they   are    filled.      The   membrane   consti- 
tuting the  walls  of  these  sacs  is  so  exceedingly 


226  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

thin  and  permeable  that  gases  pass  through  it 
with  great  rapidity,— the  oxygen  from  the  air 
to  the  blood,  and  the  carbon  dioxid  from  the 
blood  to  the  air. 

56.    Blood -changes  in  respiration 

414.  The    heart    of     warm-blooded    animals 
is   composed   of   two   double   cavities,    right    and 
left,  which   are   quite    distinct   from  each  other. 
The   left    side   pumps    the    blood    into   the   arte- 
ries   of   the   system    at  large,  whence   it   returns 
through   the  veins  to   the  right   side.     The  right 
side,  in  its  turn,  pumps  the  blood  into  the  arte- 
ries of  the  lungs,  whence  it  returns  by  the  lung- 
veins   to   the   left   side.     In   this  way  the   blood 
is   circulated    first  through   the   lungs,  and   then 
through  the   tissues  of  the  rest  of   the  body. 

415.  The   blood   is  of   a   dark   red   or   purple 
color   as    found    in   the  veins,  in   the  right   side 
of  the   heart,  and   in   the  arteries  of  the  lungs. 
It    is   of    a    bright    crimson    hue    as    it    returns 
from     the    lungs    and    passes    through    the    left 
side   of  the   heart  and   the  arteries  to  all   parts 
of   the   body.      The    varying  color  is  determined 
by  the   presence  of   a  larger   amount   of   oxygen 
in   the    arterial   (bright   crimson)    blood,  and   by 
its    comparative    absence,    and   by   the    presence 
of  an  excess   of    carbon   dioxid,   in   the    venous 
(dark    red)  blood. 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  227 

416.  The  difference   between  the  artery- blood 
and  vein -blood  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : 

Volg.        Vols.  of 

of  carbon 

oxygen       dioxid 

From  100  vols.  of  arterial  blood  may  be  obtained  . .         20       39 
"       "       "      "venous       "         "      "         "         ..8tol2       46 

417.  The    excess  of    oxygen    in    the    arterial 
blood  is  used  up  as  it  passes  through  the  capil- 
laries, and    is  replaced   by   carbon   dioxid.     The 
excess    of    carbon    dioxid    brought    back   by  the 
venous    blood    is    thrown  out    into   the    air  fill- 
ing   the    lungs,    and    is   replaced    in    the    blood 
by  the    oxygen    taken    up    from    the   air.     The 
carbon  dioxid  is  made  up  of  one   atom   of  car- 
bon   obtained    by    the   breaking   up   of  the   tis- 
sues  or   blood    elements    which   contain   carbon, 
and   of  two    atoms    of    oxygen    carried   to   such 
tissue  or  element  by  the  blood. 

418.  Breathing,  therefore,  or  the  combination 
of  oxygen  with   carbon   to   form  the  carbon   di- 
oxid, really  does  not  take    place   in   the   lungs, 
but  in  the  various   parts  of  the   body  to  which 
the  blood  carries  the  oxygen. 

5c.    Amount  of  air  required 

419.  The    amount    of    carbon    dioxid    passed 
into  the   blood  and   exhaled   by  the  lungs  is  in- 
creased  by   exercise,  work,    sunshine  and  food  ; 
hence    the  necessity    for  more    rapid  breathing 


228  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

under  such  conditions.  The  amount  also  varies 
with  the  kind  of  animal.  The  pig  produces 
more  in  proportion  to  his  body  weight  than 
the  carnivora,  rabbit,  and  fowl ;  and  these 
again  produce  a  larger  proportionate  amount 
than  the  horse  or  the  ox. 

420.  Air   which   contains   10   to   12    per  cent 
of  carbon  dioxid  will  no  longer  sustain  life.     The 
deleterious  effect    is   due    partly   to   the   lack   of 
oxygen  in  such  re- breathed  air,  but  also  to  the 
excess    of   the   poisonous   carbon   dioxid,  volatile 
organic    matter,  and     other    injurious    products. 
Air   which   contains  even   1   per  cent   of   carbon 
dioxid   produced  by   breathing  is   injurious  to  a 
marked     degree.     In     a    perfectly    close     place, 
where    there    can    be   no    access   of    fresh   air,  a 
horse  would  contaminate  to  this  extent  over  7,000 
cubic  feet  in  24  hours. 

421.  The  question  of  stable  space,  however,  is 
dependent   on   the    amount    of    air   that   can   be 
introduced   by  ventilation  in   a   given  length   of 
time.    The  tighter  the  building  and  the  less  the 
admission  of  fresh  air,  the  greater  must  be  the 
area  supplied  ;    while  the  greater  the  facility  for 
the  entrance  of  fresh  air,  the  smaller  need  be  the 
space  per  animal.     If  the  whole  of  the  air  could 
be  removed  every  three  hours,  1,000  cubic  feet 
per  horse  or  cow  would   suffice  to  keep  the  air 
sufficiently  pure  and  wholesome. 


flOW    Tflfi    ANIMAL    LIVES  229 

6.   Work;   Waste;  Eest 
6a.    Waste  of  tissue 

422.  Under  bodily  labor,  the  elements  of  the 
muscles   are  used  up  to   a  certain  extent,  while 
heat    and     waste     matters     are      produced.      A 
period  of  rest  is   required    to  allow  for  repair  of 
this  waste.     We  see  this  carried  out  in  all  healthy 
bodily  functions.     The  heart,  after  each  contrac- 
tion, has  a  short  rest  before  the  commencement 
of  the  next  contraction.     The  muscles  that  carry 
on  breathing  work  in  relays,  those  that  dilate  the 
chest    resting    while    those     that    compress    the 
chest  are  in  operation.     Then  both  rest  for  an 
interval    before    the     next     inspiration    is    com- 
menced.    This   provides    for   rest   and   repair  of 
both  the   muscles  and   nerves.     Except  for  such 
rest,  both  would  soon  be  exhausted  and  wasted 
beyond   the  power  of  work. 

423.  The   waste   of    tissues,    however,   is    not 
always    in   exact    proportion    to   the    amount    of 
work.      On  the  contrary,  it  has  been   shown  by 
careful  experiment  that  the  waste  of  the  working 
muscle  is   but    a   small    part   of  the  expenditure 
made.      The    heat-   or   fat-producing   matters   in 
the     food     are    also    used     up     in    such    work. 
The  process  may  be  likened  to  fuel   supplied  to 
the  engine,  which  contributes  to  keep  it  running 


230  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

with  the  expenditure  of  but  a  small  part  of  its 
own  proper  substance.  Thus  the  starch  and 
sugar  in  the  diet  contribute  not  only  to  main- 
tain heat  and  to  lay  up  fat,  but  also  to  render 
possible  a  large  expenditure  of  muscular  energy 
and  work. 

66.    Applications  to  practice 

424.  Such  expenditure  of  food  and  muscular 
energy  in  producing  heat  and  work  prevents  the 
laying  out  of    the    same  capital  for   other  uses, 
such   as    growth,  fattening   or   milking.     In   do- 
mestic   animals,    which    can    be   profitably    kept 
only  when  adapted  to  special  uses,  expenditures 
in  other  directions  must  be  limited  as  far  as  may 
be  in  keeping  with  the  maintenance  of  health. 

425.  For  rapid  fattening,  rest  and  warmth  and 
seclusion  are  favorable.     Even  the  milch  cow,  put 
in   the  stable  in  good   health,  may  be  made   to 
give  more  milk  for  a  time  when  kept  idle  in  a 
warm  stall   than  when  turned  out  to  gather  her 
food  from  a  pasture.     This,  however,  cannot  be 
safely  carried  to  extremes.     The  continuous  dis- 
use  of   the  muscles    tends    to    their    waste   and 
degeneration,  to  an  impoverishment  of  the  blood, 
to  a  loss  of  tone  of  the  nervous  and  other  organs, 
and  to  a  gradual  lowering  of  vitality.     For  ani- 
mals that  are  soon  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  butcher, 
this  is  not  to  be   considered  ;    but  for  such   as 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  231 

are  to  reproduce  their  kind  and  keep  up  the 
future  herd,  a  moderate  amount  of  muscular 
exercise  is  as  important  as  suitable  food  and 
hygiene. 

426.  The  animal  body  is  a  very  complex 
organism,  with  an  almost  endless  variety  of  parts 
and  functions,  each  of  which  is  more  or  less 
essential  to  the  full  usefulness  of  the  whole.  The 
best  condition  of  bodily  health  is  that  in  which 
all  of  these  are  properly  adjusted  to  each  other 
and  to  the  surroundings.  In  the  case  of  farm 
animals,  the  complexity  is  the  greater  because  the 
natural  functions  must  be  developed  here  and 
restricted  there,  to  make  them  a  profitable  pos- 
session; and  all  this  must  be  done  within  limits 
which  will  be  compatible  with  the  maintenance  of 
health  and  vigor. 

SUGGESTIONS   ON  CHAPTER  XIV 

359a.  The  best  illustration  which  the  pupil  can  secure  of  a 
single-celled  structureless  organism  is  the  amoeba  (Fig.  84). 
This  lowly  animal  lives  in  stagnant  pools,  and  can  be  secured 
by  scraping  the  scum  off  the  stems  and  leaves  of  water  plants. 
In  its  larger  forms  it  is  barely  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

3596.  The  Fig.  85  shows  a  spindle-shaped  (involuntary)  con- 
tractile cell  or  fiber  from  the  muscular  layer  of  the  intestine, 
showing  nucleus  in  white  and  nucleolus  in  black.  It  has  no 
such  variety  of  functions  as  the  amoeba  has. 

360a.  A  part  or  an  organism  is  said  to  be  specialized  when 
it  is  fitted  for  some  particular  work,  rather  than  for  general 


232 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


work.  A  cell  which  has  to  do  only  with  nutrition  is  special- 
ized ;  one  which  has  to  do  with  nutrition,  sensation,  locomotion, 
and  reproduction,  is  generalized.  A  cell  may  be  said  to  be 


Fig.  84.  Amoeba,  showing  large,  round  nucleus 
near  the  top,  enclosing  a  uucleolus,  many 
granules,  protruding  arms  of  protoplasm,  Fig.  85. 

and  white  space  round  which  the  proto-  Muscle  cell, 

plasm  has  flowed.    Magnified  200  diameters.  Magnified. 

still  further  specialized  when  it  carries  on  some  particular  or 
special  part  of  nutrition. 

363a.  A  secretion  is  a  material  derived  from  the  blood  and 
poured  out  into  the  body.  When  this  material  is  of  no  further 
use,  it  is  eliminated,  or  removed  from  the  body,  and  is  known  as 
an  excretion.  The  saliva,  eye-water,  bile,  gastric  juice,  are  ex- 
amples of  secretions. 

363ft.  Glands  are  secreting  organs.  Thus  the  salivary  glands 
secrete  or  make  the  saliva  or  spittle,  from  the  blood.  The 
liver  is  a  gigantic  gland,  secreting  bile  and  other  materials. 

364o.  Glycogen  is  very  like  starch.  In  fact,  it  has  the  same 
chemical  composition, C8HioO5.  It  is  rapidly  changed  into  grape 
sugar  or  glucose  by  the  action  of  saliva  and  other  juices,  and 
it  then  becomes  available  for  the  building  of  tissue  or  keeping 
up  the  bodily  heat, 


HOW    THE     ANIMAL     LIVES 


233 


365rt.  Lymph  is  a  product  of  the  blood.  It  is  a  pale  liquid 
which  transudes  from  the  thin  or  capillary  blood  vessels,  and  is 
used  to  nourish  and  build  up  the  tissues.  The  lymphatic  system 
carries  food  materials  to  the  places  where  they  are  needed. 
S,-e  409fc. 

367«.  By  the  alimentary  canal  is  meant  the  whole  digestive 
tract,  beginning  with  the  mouth,  and  comprising  the  gullet  or 
esophagus,  the  stomach,  the  small  and  large  intestines. 

371a.  The  fats  contain  carbon, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  but  the  oxy- 
gen is  in  small  proportion.  One 
of  the  common  fats  (palmatin)  has 
the  composition  CoiHggOe  ;  another 
(stearin)  is  CsiHiioOe. 

379«.  In  physiology,  the  word 
ferment  is  used  to  designate  sub- 
stances which  have  power  to  make 
starch-like  materials  soluble  by  con- 
verting them  into  sugar-like  materi- 
als. These  ferments,  of  which  ptyalin 
is  one,  are  secretions.  They  are  also 
called  enzyms.  These  secretions 
may  be  the  products  of  cells  in  the 
animal  body  or  of  independent  micro- 
organisms. The  micro-organisms  are  themselves  often  called 
ferments  (35o). 

382«.  The  single  stomach  of  a  carnivorous  animal  is  shown 
in  Fig.  86.  The  stomach  of  a  ruminant  is  well  illustrated  in 
Fig.  87,  the  front  walls  being  cut  away  to  show  the  internal 
structure.  It  has  four  divisions  :  C,  paunch  ;  R,  reticulum  ;  N, 
manifolds  ;  O,  the  true  digesting  stomach. 

.'{8f>«.  There  are  various  experiments  which  the  pupil  can 
perform.  Mix  a  little  well -boiled  starch  with  a  small  quantity 
of  saliva,  and  after  a  time  it  will  be  found  to  have  become 
sweet.  If  at  the  outset  a  drop  of  solution  of  iodine  is  added 
to  the  mixture  it  will  produce  a  blue  color  (2036).  As  the 
starch  is  changed  into  sugar,  this  color  gradually  fades  and  i$ 
the  end  disappears, 


Fig.  86. 


dog. 


234 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


387a.  An  antiseptic  is  any  material  which  destroys  germs 
or  bacteria  (284a).  The  muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid  is  present 
in  small  amounts,  ranging  from  0.2  to  0.8  and  upward  in  1,000 
parts  in  the  different  kinds  of  animals. 

3875.  A  substance  may  be  acid  or  sour,  in  which  case  it 
turns  blue  litmus  red  (153,  153a).  It  may  be  alkaline,  as  lye, 


Fig.  87.    Stomach  of  sheep. 


Fig.  88.    Crop  and 
gizzard  of  fowl. 


in  which    case  it   turns    red    litmus    blue.      It    may  be    neutral, 
giving  neither  reaction. 

387c.  Flowerless  plants,  of  which  fungi,  ferns,  and  bacteria 
are  examples,  do  not  produce  seeds,  but  spores.  These  spores 
are  usually  single  cells,  and  contain  no  embryo.  They  can 
Tisually  grow,  even  after  becoming  dry.  Spores  are  commonly 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  235 

more  difficult  to  kill  than  the  organism  is  when  in  an  actively 
growing  condition. 

390«.  A  precipitate,  in  chemistry,  is  a  more  or  less  solid 
material,  which  is  the  result  of  chemical  action,  and  which  settles 
to  the  bottom  of  the  liquid  in  which  it  is  formed.  Thus,  let  the 
pupil  blow  through  a  straw  into  a  bottle  of  lime  water.  The 
liquid  will  become  cloudy,  and  after  a  time  the  sediment  will 
settle  to  the  bottom.  The  pupil  has  added  the  carbon  dioxid 
(€02)  of  his  breath  to  the  lime  water,  and  carbonate  of  lime 
(or  limestone)  has  been  formed.  Compare  194a. 

392a.  The  action  of  the  gastric  juice  may  be  familiarly  seen 
in  the  curdling  of  milk  in  the  cheese  factory  by  means  of 
rennet.  A  little  mince-meat  mixed  with  the  scrapings  of  the 
lining  membrane  of  a  pig's  stomach,  rendered  slightly  acid 
by  a  drop  or  two  of  muriatic  acid  and  kept  near  blood-heat 
(96°  F),  will  soon  be  completely  dissolved,  with  the  formation 
of  peptone. 

392fc.  Rennet  is  the  digestive  principle  derived  from  the 
fourth  stomach  of  ruminants  (O,  Fig.  87).  This  stomach  is 
taken  from  calves  and  dried  ;  and  the  stomach  itself  is  then 
spoken  of  as  rennet.  The  stomach  of  adult  animals  could  also 
be  used,  if  necessary. 

393a.  The  gastric  apparatus  of  a  chicken  is  shown  in  Fig. 
88.  The  crop  is  at  «,  the  proventriculus  at  ft,  and  the  gizzard 
at  c. 

396«.  An  emulsion  is  that  condition  in  which  fatty  or 
oily  materials  are  so  intimately  mixed  with  the  liquid  in  which 
they  are  placed  that  they  act  much  as  if  they  were  in  actual 
solution,  even  passing  through  membranes.  Most  farmers  are 
now  familiar  with  the  kerosene  emulsion,  used  as  an  insecti- 
cide (296a). 

399a.  Glycerin  is  a  colorless  liquid  which  is  associated  with 
fats  or  fat-acids,  and  which  may  be  derived  from  them.  Its 
composition  is  C3H5(OH)3.  It  is  often  made  from  the  fats  by 
artificial  means,  and  is  used  in  medicine  and  the  arts.  Also 
spelled  glycerine. 

402(7.  Two  villi  are  shown  in  Fig.  89.  The  singular  form  of 
the  word  ia  v  ill  us. 


236 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 


404a.  In  connection  with  intestinal  digestion  and  absorption, 
the  bile  fills  a  specially  important  economic  function,  in  sup- 
plying many  of  its  ingredients  to  be  used  over  and  over  again 
in  the  course  of  the  same  day.  The  bile  stimulates  in  a  high 
degree  the  absorption  of  the  digested  products,  entering  with 
them  into  the  veins.  As  all  the  blood  returning  from  the 
intestines  must  pass  through  the  liver,  the  elements  of  the 
absorbed  bile  are  secreted  anew  and  once  more  poured  into  the 
intestine.  Hence  a  small  amount  of  bile  performs  a  very  large 
amount  of  work  ;  and  hence,  too,  any  suspension  of  the  secre- 
tion of  bile  interferes  seriously  with  the  general  health. 

409a.  A  ptomaine  (pronounced  to-main)  is  a  material  formed 
from  the  decomposition  of  dead  tissue.  It  is  alkaline,  and  often 
poisonous.  The  poison  in  unwholesome  ice-cream,  for  example, 
is  a  ptomaine.  Ptomaines  often  result  from  the  destructive 
work  of  microbes.  The  term  toxin  is  applied  to  a  poisonous 
product  of  fermentation,  whether  alkaline  or  neutral. 

4096.  It  may  be  well  to  speak  of  the  destination  of  the 
chyle.  Chyle  is  the  liquid  formed  of  the  materials  absorbed 

from  the  bowels  into  the 
lymph  vessels.  It  is  albu- 
minous (nitrogenous)  and 
fatty,  with  a  white,  milky 
color.  This,  like  the  lymph 
in  the  other  lymph  vessels 
in  various  parts  of  the 
body,  contains  white, 
spherical,  microscopic 
cells,  which  are  greatly 
increased  after  passing 
through  the  lymph  glands, 
and  when  poured  into  the 
blood  become  white  blood 
globules.  During  the  in- 
Fig.  89.  Surface  of  mucous  membrane  of  tervals  in  which  there  is 
the  intestine,  showing  villi  with  cen-  no  digestion,  the  lymph 
tral  lacteal  duet  and  blood  vessels,  .  .  ,  .  , 

and  on  the  surf  ace  the  absorbing  epi-        or    chyle    ln     these     mteS- 
thelial  cells.  tinal  vessels,    as    in    other 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  237 

parts  of  the  body,  is  a  simple  straw-colored  liquid  consisting 
of  surplus  nutritive  matter  which  has  not  been  required  by 
the  needs  of  the  part,  and  is  being  returned  to  the  blood. 
In  this  lymph  we  find  an  important  source  of  supply  of  the 
white  blood  globules,  which  are  being  constantly  used  up  ; 
and  thus  derangements  in  the  lymph  vessels  and  glands  injuri- 
ously affect  the  blood,  and  through  it  the  entire  animal  system. 
4096.  The  admirable  adaptation  of  means  to  end  is  trace- 
able in  the  successive  changes  of  these  food  product*.  The 
nitrogenous  constituents  in  the  food,  which  are  not  fitted  for 
absorption,  are  transformed  into  ,the  peptones,  which  are  spe- 
cially adapted  for  rapid  absorption.  Then  the  peptones,  which 
are  not  fitted  for  nutrition,  but  are  really  poisonous,  are  changed 
in  the  liver,  so  as  to  render  them  harmless  and  fitted  for  the 
varied  uses  of  the  bod}7,  or  for  elimination.  Other  food  princi- 
ples are  turned  into  sugar,  and  some  poisonous  fermentation 
products  are  rendered  harmless  through  the  action  of  the  liver. 
This  interdependence  of  different  functions  upon  each  other — 
mastication,  insalivation,  digestion,  absorption,  transformations 
in  the  liver,  the  formation  of  normal  blood  elements,  assimi- 
lation and  secretion — furnishes  an  indication  of  what  goes  on 
throughout  the  whole  animal  bod}',  the  perfection  of  one  process 
being  essential  to  that  of  others,  and  the  derangement  of  one 
causing  disorder  of  the  others.  The  nervous  system,  which  is 
concerned  in  carrying  on  all  functions,  from  those  of  simple 
nutrition  of  a  tissue  or  of  secretion  by  a  gland  up  to  such  mental 
processes  as  the  animal  is  endowed  with,  is  dependent  on  the 
blood  for  its  own  functional  activity.  Changes  in  the  blood 
entail  change  in  the  capacity  for  nervous  work  ;  so  that  disorder 
of  one  distant  organ,  acting  by  influencing  the  nervous  system, 
directly  through  the  nerves  or  indirectly  through  the  blood, 
may  bring  about  derangements  of  the  most  varied  kind  in  the 
different  organs  subject  to  nervous  influence.  The  great  func- 
tion of  the  lungs  is  the  elimination  of  carbon  dioxid  from  the 
blood  and  tissues  and  the  introduction  of  oxygen,  which,  being 
carried  into  all  parts  by  the  red  globules,  assists  in  nearly 
every  change  which  takes  place  in  any  organ.  But  if  the  lungs 


238  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

fail  to  fulfill  their  function  to  any  degree,  every  organ  and 
function  is  affected.  Most  of  the  waste  nitrogenous  matter 
leaves  the  body  through  the  kidneys,  but  if  this  channel  of 
elimination  is  interfered  with,  the  effete  matters  are  retained,  and 
they  poison  and  derange  every  organ  from  the  brain  downward. 
Even  apparently  insignificant  organs  have  a  far-reaching  in- 
fluence. The  spleen  and  bone  marrow-cells  affect  the  develop- 
ment of  blood  globules.  A  small  gland  at  the  throat  (thyroid) 
affects  the  nervous  system,  and  a  still  smaller  one  at  the  base 
of  the  brain  (pituitary)  influences  the  growth  of  the  limbs. 

411a.  Repeat  the  experiment  suggested  in  390a.  Make  lime 
water  by  placing  a  piece  of  quicklime  in  a  bottle  of  pure 
water,  shaking  and  setting  aside  to  settle.  Then  take  a  little 
of  the  clear  liquid  and  with  a  syringe  force  air  through 
it.  It  will  become  only  slightly  turbid.  Next  take  a  tube  and 
blow  through  this  water  for  a  short  time,  when  it  will  become 
white  and  opaque  by  the  formation  of  lime  carbonate,  owing 
to  the  union  of  carbon  dioxid  with  the  lime. 

413a.  The  lung  of  any  of  the  higher  animals  presents  an 
enormous  surface  to  the  inspired  air.  To  illustrate  the  extra- 
ordinary extent  of  breathing  surface  formed  by  this  minute  di- 
vision of  the  lungs  into  microscopic  sacs,  it  may  be  stated  that, 
in  the  horse,  it  reaches  an  area  of  500  to  800  square  feet. 

414a.  The  heart  of  an  ox,  sheep,  or  other  animal  can  be 
obtained  at  the  slaughter  house  or  of  the  butcher.  Discover 
the  right  and  left  cavities, — a  ventricle  surmounted  by  an  auricle 
on  each  side,— the  valves  around  the  opening  leading  from  the 
auricle  to  the  ventricle,  and  the  cords  connecting  the  valves  with 
the  inner  side  of  the  ventricle. 

416a  When  blood  is  shed  in  killing  an  animal  or  otherwise, 
observe  how  the  surface  layer  gradually  changes  from  the  dark 
red  to  a  bright  crimson  as  it  takes  up  the  oxygen  from  the  air. 

418a.  In  the  conveyance  of  oxygen  in  the  blood  the  color- 
ing matter  of  the  red  globules  (hemoglobin)  is  the  principle 
bearer.  It  combines  with  oxygen  loosely,  and  gives  it  up  promptly 
at  the  demand  of  the  carbon.  The  bright  crimson  color  is  due 
to  the  union  of  much  oxygen  with  the  coloring  matter  of  the 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  239 

red  blood  globules,  while  the  dark  red  hue  is  caused  by  the 
comparative  absence  of  oxygen.  The  liquid  elements  of  the 
blood  (serum)  can  absorb  and  convey  but  little  oxygen.  In 
order  to  have  free  and  healthy  breathing,  therefore,  the  blood 
must  contain  abundance  of  red  globules,  and  these  must  be 
well  developed,  containing  a  large  amount  of  the  red  coloring 
matter.  Ill  health,  lack  of  sunshine,  and  various  diseases, 
which  cause  diminution  of  the  red  globules  or  of  their  coloring 
matter,  interfere  with  respiration  and  consequently  with  the 
healthy  nutrition  and  function  of  the  tissues  of  the  animal. 

426a.  Persons  who  desire  a  detailed  account  of  the  physiology 
of  domestic  animals,  may  consult  F.  Smith's  "Manual  of  Veteri- 
nary Physiology."  Advice  as  to  the  treatment  of  animals  is 
contained  in  Law:s  "  Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser."' 


CHAPTER   XV 
THE   FEEDING    OF    THE  ANIMAL 

H.  H.   WING 

1.  Sources  of  Food  of  Animals 

427.  Broadly  speaking,  an  animal  must  feed 
upon  either  animal  or  vegetable  substances,  and 
it  has  no  power  to  use  as  food  mineral  or  inor- 
ganic substances. 

428.  Any  substance  which  an  animal  may  use 
as  food  is  called  a  fodder.     A  fodder  must  con- 
tain the   substances   that    are   needed   for  suste- 
nance   in    such   form   that    the    animal    can   use 
them,    and   must   not   contain    anything    that   is 
injurious  or  poisonous  to  the  animal. 

2.  How  the  Animal    Uses  Food 

429.  The  plant,   by  reason  of  its  vital  force 
and  with  the  aid  of  the  energy  of  the  sun,  trans- 
forms simple  forms  of  matter  into  more  complex 
ones,  and  in  so  doing  locks  or  stores  up  a  part 
of  the   energy  received.     The   animal,   by  means 

(240) 


THE  FEEDING  OF  THE  ANIMAL        241 

of  its  digestive  processes,  tears  down  these  sub- 
stances, setting  free  the  energy  and  transforming 
the  matter  into  forms  suitable  to  be  incorporated 
into  animal  tissue. 

430.  Before  the  matter  of  the  fodder  can   be 
used,  it  is  necessary  that  the  animal  expend  energy 
upon  it  during  the  processes  of  digestion  and  as- 
similation.   The  profit  of  the  fodder  to  the  animal 
is    represented    by    the    difference    between    the 
amount  of  energy  originally  present  in  the  fodder 
and  the  amount  of  energy  it  is  necessary  for  the 
animal    to  expend  upon    it  in   order  to   make  it 
available.     Some  substances  require   so  great  an 
expenditure  of  energy  by  the  animal  to  digest  or 
partially   digest   them   that   they    are    useless   as 
fodders,  although   they   may  contain  the  proper 
compounds  in  measurably  proper  proportions. 

431.  Fodder  is  used  by  the  animal  (1)  as  fuel 
to   keep   up  the   bodily   heat,   without  which  the 
vital  processes  cannot  go   on;    (2)   to  repair  the 
wastes  of  the  various  tissues,  organs  and  fluids  of 
the  body;    (3)  to  form  new  tissues  or  organs,  or 
add  to  those  already  formed  (especially  in  young 
animals) ;    (4)   to  produce  young;   and  (5)  to  lay 
up  reserve  stores  in  the  form  of  fat  or  otherwise, 
to  secrete  various  products,  or  to  perform  muscu- 
lar labor.      Many  of   these   reserves  or  products 
are  useful  to  man,  as  milk,  wool  and  eggs. 

432.  In   general,    if    the    amount    of   food   is 


242  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

insufficient  it  will  be  used  for  the  first  four  pur- 
poses, approximately  in  the  order  named  ;  and 
only  after  the  needs  of  the  animal  are  fully 
supplied  in  these  respects  will  food  be  used 
for  the  last  purpose.  The  food  used  for  the 
first  four  purposes  is  called  food  of  support  or 
food  of  maintenance ;  that  used  for  the  last 
purpose  is  food  of  production. 

433.  Not  all  of  the  food  taken  into  the  body 
can  be  used  by  the  animal.     The  digestive  fluids 
fail  to  act  upon  a  part  of  the  food,  and  this  passes 
out   through   the   intestines    as    undigested    solid 
excrement.      It    is    only   the    food    which    is   di- 
gested that  is  of  use  to  the  animal. 

434.  The   proportion  of   food   digested  varies 
with  the  animal.     One  animal  may  digest  80  per 
cent  of  the  food  eaten  ;    another,  standing  by  its 
side,  equally   healthy  and    equally   vigorous   and 
of    similar   age,  may   digest    less    than    40    per 
cent. 

435.  The  amount  digested  varies  with  the  food 

and  with  the  different  constituents  in  the  food. 
Some  foods  are  almost  wholly  digested;  of  others 
less  than  one-fourth  is  digested.  In  any  given 
fodder,  one  constituent  may  be  readily  and 
largely  digestible,  while  another  is  digested  only 
with  difficulty  and  in  a  small  amount.  In  general, 
of  the  food  eaten  only  from  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  is  digested. 


THE    FEEDING    OF    THE    ANIMAL  243 

3.  Composition  of  Fodders 
3a.   Classification 

436.  Fodders  are  made  up  of  a  large  number 
of  substances,  all  of  which  are  of    more  or  less 
use  to  the   animal,  and  each  of  which,  to  some 
extent,  serves   a  definite    purpose  when  used  as 
food.     While  the  number  of  separate  compounds 
in  fodders  is  very  large,  they  fall  into  a  few  very 
distinct  groups  or  classes,  depending  upon  their 
composition  and  the   purposes  which   they  serve 
the     animals.       These    classes    are     (a)     water, 
(b)  ash,  (r)  protein,  (d)  carbohydrates,  including 
fiber,  (e)t'at. 

3b.    Water 

437.  "Water  is  present  in  all  fodders  without 
exception,   but   the   proportion  is  very   variable. 
Some   roots  'and  green  fresh  fodders  occasionally 
have  as  much  as  90  per  cent  of  water,  whereas, 
in   some  O£  the  kiln-dried   by-products   the  per- 
centage of  water  may  fall  as  low  as  5  or  6  per 
cent.      Ordinary  air- dried  fodder,  as  the  grains? 
hay,  straw,  usually  contains  from   10  to   15   per 
cent  of  water. 

438.  The   water   in   the   fodder   to   a   certain 
extent  supplies  the  needs  of  the  animal  instead  of 
water  which    is  drunk.      Animals    consuming    a 


244  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

watery  food  will  need  to  drink  less  water ;  but 
no  food  contains  so  much  water  that  it  can  be 
used  by  the  annual  to  supply  its  needs  for 
both  water  and  solid  matters. 

439.  In  general,  water  adds  tenderness,  suc- 
culence and  palatability  to  fodders.  Green  fresh 
fodders  are  more  palatable  than  the  same  fodders 
dried  ;  and  the  palatability  of  hay  or  other  dry 
fodder  may  be  increased  by  soaking  in  water,  or 
by  steaming. 

3c.  Ash 

4-40.  Ash  is  the  small  residue  which  is  left 
when  any  animal  or  vegetable  matter  is  com- 
pletely burned.  It  is  mineral  matter  obtained  by 
the  plant  from  the  soil  (147,  192),  and  is  com- 
posed of  very  nearly  the  same  substances  in  both 
plants  and  animals.  Some  ash  is  found  in  all 
parts  of  all  plants  and  all  animals,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  those  parts.  Life  can  not  be  main- 
tained or  the  vital  processes  carried  on  without 
this  ash. 

441.  In  general,  the  proportion  of  ash  is 
small,  but  the  bones  of  animals  and  certain 
parts  of  the  plant,  as  the  bark,  contain  con- 
siderable amounts.  With  scarce  an  exception, 
the  amount  of  ash  present  in  ordinary  fodders 
is  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  animal,  and, 
therefore,  it  need  not  be  taken  into  account  in 


THE     FEEDING     OF     THE     ANIMAL  245 

making  up  a  ration  or  deciding  upon  a  fodder; 
since  no  matter  what  is  fed,  it  is  almost  certain 
that  the  animal  will  find  in  it  an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  the  proper  mineral  elements,  with  the 
exception  of  common  salt. 

'M.    Albuminoids 

442.  The    protein,  or   proteids,    constitutes   a 
very    important    group    of    fodder    constituents. 
While   they  are  of  a  complex   and    varied    com- 
position,   all    contain    nitrogen    as    a    distinctive 
constituent,     as    well     as    carbon,     oxygen    and 
hydrogen,    and    usually    sulfur  and    phosphorus. 
It  is   the    nitrogen   that   gives    to    the    members 
of   this  group  their  importance  as  food  (370). 

443.  Organic  activities  can  not  be  maintained 
without   nitrogen.     It  is  an  essential  constituent 
of  the   living  animal   or  vegetable  cell,    and    no 
new  growth  can    take    place  without   it ;    conse- 
quently it   must   be   constantly   supplied    in    the 
food  of   both  plant  and  animal.     Nitrogen  is  not 
a  constituent   of    the  other   groups  of  food  ele- 
ments, and,  therefore,  the  growth  of   the  animal 
depends  in  large  measure  on  the  supply  of  protein. 

444.  While   more  or  less   protein  is  found  in 
nearly    all    fodders,    its    proportion    is    very    va- 
riable, and    in  very   many  cases   is    less  than  is 
required  by  the  animal  to  sustain  life  or  to  make 
useful  growth.    Those  fodders  that  contain  large 


246  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

amounts  of  protein  are  mainly  found  in  the  grains 
and  other  concentrated  foods  that  are  relatively 
high-priced.  Both  these  conditions  make  the 
problem  of  successful  feeding  largely  one  of  the 
sufficient  and  economical  supply  of  albuminoids. 
If  an  insufficient  amount  is  furnished,  the  animal 
suffers  in  growth  or  production;  if  more  than 
enough  is  supplied,  costly  waste  ensues. 

3e .   Carbohydrates 

445.  By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  dry  matter 
of  fodders  is  classed  with  the  carbohydrates,  the 
most    familiar    examples    of    which    are    sugars, 
starch,   gum    and    vegetable   fiber    (371).     These 
substances  contain  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen — the 
two   latter  in  the   proportions   in  which  they  are 
found   in  water.     They  contain   no   nitrogen. 

446.  By  union  with  oxygen  in  the  lungs  and 
blood,   the    carbohydrates    are    decomposed    into 
carbonic    acid    (carbon    dioxid)    and    water,   and 
heat    is   evolved   in   precisely  the    same   way   as 
under    ordinary    combustion    in    the    air.     They 
are  thus  the  main  source  of  heat  to  the  animal. 
They  are  also  a  source  of  muscular  energy,  and 
in  most  cases  an  important  source  of  fat  in  both 
tissue  and  product. 

447.  Of  the  carbohydrates,  fiber  is  much  less 
readily   acted    on    by   the    digestive    fluids,   and 
often  a  large  part  of  it  passes  through  the  animal 


THE     FEEDING    OP    THE    ANIMAL  247 

without  change.  For  this  reason  it  is  often  con- 
venient to  consider  it  in  a  class  by  itself.  So  far 
as  it  is  used  at  all,  it  serves  the  same  purpose  as 
the  other  carbohydrates. 

3/.  Fats 

448.  The  fats   (371a)   of  fodder  are  used  by 
the  animal  for  much  the   same   purposes  as  the 
carbohydrates.      They  contain   only  carbon,  oxy- 
gen   and    hydrogen,     but    proportionately   much 
less  oxygen    than    the   carbohydrates.      For  this 
reason  they  yield   much    more   energy  when  de- 
composed   or     burned,    and    are,    therefore,    of 
much  more   value  to  the  animal  than  the  carbo- 
hydrates. 

449.  The  amount  of  energy  yielded  by  differ- 
ent fats  varies   somewhat,  but   in   general,  it   is 
about  two  and  one -fourth  times  as  much  as  that 
yielded  by  an  equal  weight  of   sugar  or  starch  ; 
and  in  reducing  fat  to  its  "starch  equivalent"  (for 
purposes  of  comparison)  this   is  the  factor  com- 
monly employed.      In  ordinary  fodders   the  per- 
centage of   fat  is   not  large,  running  from  about 
3  to  about  8  per  cent  of  the  air- dry  substance. 

4.  Feeding 
4a.  Nutritive  ratio 

450.  From  what  has  already  been  said,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fats 


248  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP    AGRICULTURE 

are  the  constituents  of  the  fodder  that  are  of 
direct  use  to  the  animal.  These  are  often  collec- 
tively spoken  of  as  nutrients,  and  the  portion  of 
them  that  is  digestible  as  digestible  nutrients. 

451.  Since    the    protein    (or    albuminoids)    is 
necessary  to  growth  and  reproduction,  and  since 
the   carbohydrates   and   fats  are   mainly  used  to 
produce    heat   and   work    and    reserve    stores    of 
fat,   the    proper    relations    of    these   constituents 
to  one   another    in   various    fodders   and    rations 
constitute  an  important  part  of   the   science  and 
art  of  feeding.     A  ration  is  said  to  be  balanced 
when  these  substances  exist  in  the  proper  propor- 
tion to  one  another  for  the  purpose  intended. 

452.  It  has  been  found  convenient  to  express 
the  relation  between  the   protein  and  other  con- 
stituents in  the  form  of   a  ratio,  known  as  the 
nutritive  ratio.     The  nutritive  ratio  is  the  ratio  of 
the   digestible  protein  to  the  digestible  carbohy- 
drates plus  two   and  one -fourth  times   (449)  the 
digestible    fat,    expressed   in   terms   of    unity    or 
one  of  the  protein. 

453.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  found  by  adding  to 
the  digestible  carbohydrates  two  and  one -fourth 
times    the    digestible    fat,    and    dividing    by   the 
digestible  protein.     It  is  expressed  thus  :     Nutr. 
Eatlo  1:  5.5.     It  means  that  in  some  certain  fod- 
der or  ration  there  is  for  each  pound  of  digest- 
ible protein  or  flesh -forming  nutrients,  five  and 


THE     FEEDING     OF     THE     ANIMAL  249 

one -half  pounds  of  digestible  heat  and  fat- 
forming  elements.  A  ratio  is  said  to  be  wide  or 
narrow  when  the  proportion  of  heat -forming 
nutrients  is  large  or  small  in  proportion  to  the 
protein.  Thus,  1:  12  is  wider  than  1:7. 

454.  A  certain  proportion  should  exist  between 
the  nitrogenous  and  non- nitrogenous  nutrients  of 
a  ration.     Animals  that  are  growing  rapidly,  that 
are  bearing  young,  and  that  are  producing  wool, 
milk   or  eggs,  require    a   more  nitrogenous  food 
than   animals  that  are  working,  or  fattening,  or 
living  without  gain  or  loss  of  weight.      For  the 
latter,  the  nutritive  ratio  may  be  as  wide  as  1:  12 
or  1 : 14  ;  for  the  former,  the  nutritive  ratio  should 
be  as  narrow  as  1:5  or  1:6. 

455.  Formerly  it  was   supposed  that    slightly 
differing    nutritive    ratios    would    make    distinct 
differences  in  the  effectiveness  of  a  ration  or  the 
quality  of  the  product ;    but  it  is  now  generally 
considered   that   the    limits    of    variation    in   the 
nutritive  ratio  may  be  rather  wide  without  mate- 
rially   influencing    the    nutritive    effect     of     the 
ration.      Other   conditions    may  mask    the   effect 
due  to  differences  in  the  nutritive  ratio. 

456.  One  of   the  chief  reasons  for  taking  the 
nutritive  ratio  into  consideration  is  that  the  pro- 
tein may  be  economically  used.     Protein  should 
be  used  for  the  formation  of  nitrogenous  products 
in  the  animal.     It  may,  however,  be  used  as  a 


250  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

source  of  heat,  instead  of  the  cheaper  starch  or 
sugar.  This  may  occur  in  any  ration  when  the 
proportion  of  protein  is  in  excess  ;  but  there  is 
generally  a  too  small  proportion  of  protein. 

457.  By   far   the    larger    number    of    natural 
fodders  are  deficient  in  protein,  and  a  chief  task 
of  the  feeder  is  to  furnish,  from  by-products  or 
otherwise,  a  sufficient  amount  of   albuminoids  in 
the   cheapest    form.      Usually  more   protein    can 
be  used   to    advantage    by    the    animal    than    is 
furnished  to  it. 

46.   Quantity  of  food  required 

458.  The  quantity  of  food  that  an  animal  can 
profitably  or  economically  use  is  dependent  upon  a, 
variety  of  circumstances  and  conditions.     In  the 
first  place,  a  certain  amount  must  go  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  body  and  the  vital  functions.     This  is 
known  as  the  food   of    maintenance  (432) ;    and 
a  ration  calculated  to  keep  an  animal  alive  and 
in    good    health   without    gain    or   loss   of    body 
weight   is   called  a  maintenance  ration. 

459.  The   amount  of   food   required   for  sup- 
port depends  upon  the  size  and  somewhat  upon 
the  individuality  of  the   animal.     Small   animals 
require  more   food  in  proportion  to  their  weight 
than  large  ones.     Average  animals  of  the  same 
class,  however,  are  usually  considered  to  require 
food    in   proportion   to   their    body  weight.      In 


THE    FEEDING    OF    THE    ANIMAL  251 

general,  for  horses  and  cattle,  about  18  pounds 
per  day  of  dry  matter  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight  is  required  for  maintenance. 

460.  It  is  from  the  food  eaten  in  addition  to 
that    required    for    maintenance    that    the    profit 
comes  to  the    feeder.     Hence,  if  an  animal    re- 
ceives no   more   than  enough   to   sustain  life,   it 
can   produce  no   profit   to  its  owner.     Much  less 
is  there  profit   if   an  animal    is  allowed  to    lose 
in  weight ;    for   common    experience    has   shown 
that  when  an  animal   is   once   allowed    to   suffer 
loss  in  weight,  the    loss  is  regained   only  at   an 
increased    expenditure  of    food    above  what    was 
originally  required    to   produce  it. 

461.  The  amount  of  food  that  an  animal  can 
use  profitably  over  and  above  that  required  for 
maintenance,  depends  upon    the  capacity  of  the 
animal    and    the   purpose    of   production.      Most 
animals    will    make    a    return    approximately   in 
proportion  to  the  food    consumed,  up   to   a  cer- 
tain   amount.        Above    that    amount,   the    food 
simply  passes   through    the   animal  ;    or   the    di- 
gestive   apparatus    becomes    disordered    and    the 
animal   refuses    to    eat.      However,    the    capacity 
of  different  animals  in  this  respect  varies  widely. 

462.  Assume   that   six   pounds    per    day   per 
1,000  pounds   live  weight    is    about  the  average 
amount  of  dry  matter  that  an  animal  can  profit- 
ably use  above  that  required  for  support.    It  will 


252  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

be  found  that  many  animals  can  not  profitably  use 
more  than  three  or  four  pounds,  while  others  can 
use  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds,  and  an  occasional 
animal  can  profitably  use  a  still  larger  amount. 

463.  The  amount  of  food  that  an  animal  can 
or  will    eat    must   not    be    confounded   with    the 
amount   of   food   that  an    animal    can   profitably 
use.     Many  animals  can  and  constantly  do   pass 
through   their   bodies   a    considerable   amount  of 
food    of    which   no    use  whatever   is    made,    and 
this,  too,  without  interfering  in  any  way  with  the 
general  health,   digestive  functions,  or  even  with 
the  appetite. 

4c.  Feeding  standards 

464.  Feeding  standards  show  the  amount  and 
proportions   of    the    various    nutrients   that  have 
been   found    by  experience    to    be    best    adapted 
to  the  various  purposes.     A  few  are  given  : 

FOR  EACH  1,000  POUNDS  LIVE  WEIGHT  PER  DAY. 

Digestible 

Dry  Digestible    carbohydrates      Nutritive 

matter  protein  and  fat  ratio 

Oxen  (maintenance)  .  17.5  Ibs.  0.7  Ibs.  8.15  Ibs.  1:  12 

Horses  at  work    .    .    .22.5    "  1.8    "  11.8      "  1:7 

Milk  cows 24.      "  2.5    "  12.9      "  1:5.4 

Growing  pigs  (young)  42.      "  7.5    "  30.        "  1:4 

465.  In  any  given  case,  these   or  any  stand- 
ards   may   be    advantageously  varied   to    a    con- 
siderable extent.    The  standards  are  mere  guides. 


THE     FEEDING    OP    THE    ANIMAL  253 

The  skill  of  the  feeder  depends  upon  his  success 
in  finding  out  how  far  the  individual  require- 
ments of  his  animals  warrant  a  variation  in  the 
standard. 

4d.  Bulk  in  the  ration 

466.  Aside    from   the    amount    of    digestible 
nutrients    and    the    nutritive   ratio,,  the    bulk   of 
the    ration   is    a   matter   of    considerable    impor- 
tance.     It    has    already    been    noted    (433)    that 
considerable    portions    of    all    the    nutrients    are 
not  digested.    Consequently,  in  every  ration  there 
is    more    or   less    material    of  which    the    animal 
makes  no  use,  and  which  may  be  said  to  merely 
add  to  the  bulk  of  the  ration.     "Water  and  fiber 
are,  above  all  other  things,  the  substances  which 
give  bulk  to  a  fodder  or  ration. 

467.  Fodders    which    contain    large    amounts 
of  either  or  both  of  these  substances  are  said  to 
bo  coarse  or  bulky  ;  fodders  which   have  a  min- 
imum  amount  are   said   to    be  concentrated.     If 
a  ration   is  too   bulky,  the  animal   is  unable   to 
eat   enough    to    obtain    sufficient   nutrients.      On 
the  other  hand,  a  ration  may  be  so  concentrated 
that  the   proper   amount   of   digestible    nutrients 
do  not   sufficiently  distend   the  digestive  organs 
so  that  the  gastric  fluids  may  fully  act.     This  is 
particularly  the   case   with    ruminants    (382-384, 
367). 


254  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

468.  When   the    ration    is   unduly  bulky  be- 
cause of  the  presence  of  large  amounts  of  fiber, 
it  is   often   so  unpalatable  as  not  to  be  readily 
eaten.      On   the  other  hand,  when  water  is    the 
bulky  element,  the  food   is    almost   always  very 
palatable,  but  the  excess  of  water  has  a  loosen- 
ing and  depleting  effect  upon  the  digestive  sys- 
tem.    Under   ordinary  conditions   for   ruminants, 
about   two -thirds    of   the    dry  matter    should   be 
furnished  in  the  form  of  coarse  forage  and  one- 
third  in  concentrated  food.     For  horses  at  work, 
not  more  than  one -half  should  be  coarse  forage, 
while  swine  and  poultry  require  the  ration  to  be 
in  a  still  more  concentrated  form. 

4e.  Palatableness 

469.  It  is  found  to   be  profitable  to  provide, 
even   at    considerable   expense,  a  certain  amount 
of    fresh    green   food    for  winter  feeding,  in   the 
form    of    roots    or    like    material,    as    a    tonic    to 
appetite  and  digestion.     Silage  is  now  popular. 

470.  The  palatability  of  a  fodder  or  ration, — 
that   is,   the    readiness   or   eagerness  with  which 
it   is   eaten, — is    a   matter   of    great   importance. 
The   nutritive   effect   of   a   ration   often   depends 
upon    this    factor    alone.      In    general,    animals 
will   make    a   better   return   from    a   ration    that 
is  palatable,  even  though   it  may  not  be  ideally 


THE    FEEDING    OP    THE    ANIMAL  255 

perfect  according  to  the  standard,  than  they 
will  from  a  perfectly  balanced  ration  that  they 
do  not  like.  In  many  cases  the  quality  of  pala- 
tability  is  inherent  with  the  fodder,  in  others 
it  is  due  to  the  individual  whim  of  the  animal. 
It  can  only  be  determined  for  each  fodder  and 
each  animal  by  actual  trial. 

4/.   Cooking  and  preparing  the  food 

471.  Most   domestic   animals   are   able  to  eat 
and   digest  ordinary  forage   and   grains   in  their 
natural    state.     But    almost   all    fodders    may  be 
prepared    in   various    ways    so   that   mastication 
and   digestion   are    facilitated    or  palatability  in- 
creased.    Only  upon  one  point   is    there   general 
agreement — that  for  most  animals  it  is  better  that 
the  cereal  grains  be  ground  before  feeding.     As 
to  the   advantages  and  disadvantages   of  cutting 
or  shredding  coarse  fodder,  and  soaking,  steam- 
ing   and    cooking    foods,    opinion    is   very   much 
divided. 

472.  There    is    probably    some     economy    in 
consumption   when    coarse    fodders    are    cut    or 
shredded.      Palatability    is    often     increased     by 
soaking,    steaming     or     cooking ;     but     cooking 
renders   albuminoids  less  digestible,  and  to  that 
extent  is  a  distinct  disadvantage. 

473.  A    certain    amount    of    variety    in    the 


256  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

constituents  of  the  ration  is  appreciated  by 
all  animals.  If  the  ration  is  composed  of 
several  fodders,  these  may  be  mixed  in  a  uni- 
form mass  and  this  mixture  fed  continuously 
for  long  periods  of  time.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  cattle  and  swine. 

SUGGESTIONS    ON  CHAPTER   XV 

437a.  By-products  are  secondary  products  which  result  from 
the  manufacture  of  a  given  product.  Thus,  buttermilk  and  skim- 
med milk  are  by-products  of  butter-making,  whey  of  cheese- 
making,  pomace  of  cider-making,  bran  of  flour-making.  Many 
important  by-products  used  in  feeding  animals  result  from  the 
manufacture  of  breakfast  cereals,  the  manufacture  of  glucose 
syrups,  and  the  processes  of  brewing  and  distilling. 

442rt.  The  group  takes  its  name  from  albumin,  which  is  seen 
in  its  purest  and  most  common  form  in  the  white  of  egg. 
The  gluten  or  sticky  part  of  the  wheat  kernel,  the  casein  or 
cheesy  part  of  milk,  and  the  muscular  fibers  of  lean  meat,  are 
also  familiar  examples  of  albuminoids.  From  the  many  forms 
they  assume,  they  are  often  spoken  of  as  protein  compounds,  or 
proteids.  They  are  also  often  called  nitrogenous  substances  (370). 

443a.  The  albuminoids  are  necessary  to  all  the  processes  of 
growth  and  reproduction  ;  and  since  most  animal  products,  as 
wool,  flesh,  eggs  and  milk,  contain  large  amounts  of  nitrog- 
enous matter,  the  albuminoids  are  likewise  essential  to  pro- 
duction as  well  as  growth.  When  the  members  of  this  group 
are  decomposed  or  broken  down,  they  give  up  heat,  and,  there- 
fore, may  be  used  to  keep  the  animal  warm  (372).  It  is  not 
at  all  uncertain  that  they  are  not  concerned  in  the  forma- 
tion and  storing  up  of  fat  in  the  tissues  and  milk. 

445a.  The  word  carbohydrate  (written  also  carbhydrate) 
means  carbon-hydrate.  The  word  hydrate  signifies  a  substance 
in  which  water  combines  with  some  other  element  :  in  the  carbo- 
hydrates, this  other  element  is  carbon.  In  all  the  carbohydrates, 


THE  FEEDING  OP  THE  ANIMAL 


257 


the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  in  the  proportions  in  which  they 
occur  in  water, — two  atoms  of  hydrogen  to  one  of  oxygen  (H2O 
is  water.  1306).  The  carbo- 
hydrates are  sometimes  called 
amyloids, — that  is,  starch-like 
materials. 

453fl.  The  determination 
of  the  nutritive  ratio  is  very 
simple.  For  example  :  clover 
hay  of  average  quality  con- 
tains say  1A%  of  digestible 
protein,  11.7%  of  digestible 
fiber,  26.3%  of  digestible  car- 
bohydrates other  than  fiber, 
and  1.9%  of  digestible  fat. 
Then  2%  times  1.9  is  4.3  ; 
to  this  is  added  11.7  and  26.3, 
making  in  all  42.3,  or  the 
stareh -equivalent  of  all  the 
heat-  and  fat-forming  nutri- 
ents. Then  42.3  divided  by 
7.4  equals  5.7.  The  nutritive 
ratio  of  clover  hay  is,  there- 
fore, 1:5.7. 

458rt.   The  results  obtained 
from  any  food  depend  in  large 
measure      upon       the 
housing       and       care 
which  the  animal   re- 

~ '.  •  \kWvxmvsKnHKFrf. ' 

16  \        Fig.  90. 
A  cheap  and 
efficient 
silo. 


258  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

ceives.  Stock  should  have  warm,  airy,  light,  clean,  sweet  stables 
(see  Fig.  32,  p.  86);  and  in  cold  weather  the  drinking  water 
should  be  slightly  warmed.  Stock  should  not  be  turned  out  on 
cold  and  blustery  days,  and  a  covered  yard  (Fig.  30)  should  be 
provided.  To  endeavor  to  secure  good  results  in  feeding  ani- 
mals which  are  cold  and  uncomfortable  is  like  trying  to  heat  a 
house  with  the  windows  open. 

469o.  Our  domestic  animals  while  in  a  wild  state  depended 
for  existence  almost  wholly  upon  green  forage.  This  trait 
survives  in  the  fact  that  in  many  cases  animals  will  make  a 
larger  return  for  a  given  amount  of  nutrients  when  given  green 
and  fresh  food  than  they  will  for  the  same  nutrients  when  dry. 

4696.  Silage  (not  ensilage)  is  forage  preserved  in  a  green  and 
succulent  condition.  It  is  preserved  by  being  kept  in  a  tight 
receptacle,  from  which  air  and  germs  are  excluded  as  much  as 
possible.  This  receptacle  is  called  a  silo.  Maize  (corn-fodder) 
is  the  most  popular  silage  material.  It  is  cut  into  lengths  of 
an  inch  or  two  and  immediately  placed  in  the  silo,  being 
firmly  tramped  and  compacted,  and  the  mass  then  covered  with 
straw,  hay,  boards,  or  other  material.  Circular  silos  are  best 
because  the  material  settles  evenly  all  around.  Fig.  90  shows 
a  very  economical  silo  at  Cornell  University.  It  is  12  feet  in 
diameter  and  24  feet  high,  and  rests  on  a  cement  floor.  It  is 
made  of  lumber  24  feet  long,  6  inches  wide  and  2  inches  thick, 
the  edges  not  bevelled.  The  pieces  are  held  together  by  sec- 
tions of  woven  fence -wire,  drawn  together  by  means  of  screw 
clamps.  There  is  no  framework.  Silage  is  useful  as  a  part  of 
the  daily  ration,  but  it  is  easy  to  feed  it  to  excess.  Forty  pounds 
a  day  is  usually  sufficient  for  a  cow  in  full  milk. 

473a.  Persons  who  desire  to  pursue  these  subjects  further 
should  consult  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  and  Armsby's 
"Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding;"  also  Jordan's  "Feeding  of  Animals." 


CHAPTER   XVI 
THE   MANAGEMENT    OF    STOCK 

/.  P.  ROBERTS 

1.    The  Breeding  of  Stock 

la.    What  is  meant  by  breeding 

474.  Animals  grow  old  and  die,  or  they  are 
slaughtered  for  food.    Other  animals   are   born 

and  take  their  places.  Not  only  is  a  new  ani- 
mal born,  but  every  pair  of  animals  is  able  to 
produce  more  than  two  :  that  is,  the  total  num- 
ber of  animals  increases.  This  birth  and  multi- 
plication is  known  as  propagation. 

475.  But  it  is  not  enough  that  new  animals 
and    more    of    them    shall    appear :    these    new 
animals    must    be    desirable.      They   must    have 
certain     attributes     or     characters    which     make 
them   valuable.      In   order   that    these    desirable 
qualities    shall    arise,   the    stockman   selects  cer- 
tain   animals   to   propagate   the   race ;    and   this 
control    of    the   kind    of    offspring   which    shall 
appear  is  known  as  breeding. 

476.  Breeding    may    have    two    objects ;    to 

(259) 


260  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

maintain  or  reproduce  the  given  type  or  breed ; 
to  produce  a  new  type  or  breed.  One  may  have 
small  red  cows,  and  desire  to  produce  others  like 
them,  or  with  some  improvement  on  the  same 
lines  ;  or  he  may  wish  from  these  animals  to 
produce  large  red  cows.  In  the  former  case,  he 
maintains  his  type  ;  in  the  latter,  he  produces  a 
new  type. 

477.  A  breed  is  a  general  race  or  type  which 
reproduces    itself    more    or    less    closely.      It   is 
analagous     to     a     variety     in     plants.       Among 
cattle,    there    are    such    breeds    as    Short -horns, 
Jerseys,  Devons,   Holsteins  ;    among   fowls,  such 
as     Bantams,      Plymouth     Rocks,     Wyandottes, 
Shanghais.      The    person  who   guides    and    con- 
trols   the   propagation    of   animals   is    known   as 
a  breeder. 

Ib.   The  mental  ideal 

478.  The    first    principle    in    breeding    is    to 
know  what  qualities    one  wants  to  secure.     The 
breeder  must  have  a  distinct  ideal  in  mind. 

479.  Many  ideals  are  impracticable.    In  order 
to    be   practicable  or  useful,  the  ideal   must   be 
governed  by  two  factors  :  the  person  must  know 
the  characteristics  of    the   class    of   animals  with 
which    he    is    working ;    he    must    know   which 
qualities   are  most   likely  to  be  carried   over  to 


THE    MANAGEMENT     OP     STOCK  261 

the  offspring,  or  be  perpetuated.     Both  of  these 
factors  are  determined  by  experience. 

480.  The  ideal  type  of  animal  varies  with  the 
uses  to  which  the  animal   is  to   be  put  and  with 
the   breed.     The  points  of  merit  in  a  dairy  cow 
(one  which   is   raised   chiefly  for  the   production 
of  milk)  are  unlike  the  points   in  an   ideal   beef 
animal.    The  points   in   an  ideal   Short- horn  are 
unlike  those  in  an  ideal  Ayrshire. 

481.  Animals    are    judged    by   their    general 
form,  the    texture  of    hide   and   hair,  framework 
or  bony  structure,  their  motions,  and  dispositions, 
their  performance  and  their  products. 

1?.    How  to  attain  the  ideal 

482.  Having   learned  what   the    ideal    animal 
should  be,  the  breeder  strives  to  secure  that  ideal 
by  breeding  only  from  those  animals  which  most 
nearly  approach  the  ideal. 

483.  Animals   vary  in   their   power  to   trans- 
mit their  own   features  to  their  offspring.     Some 
animals,  without  any  visible   cause,   possess   the 
power   of   transmitting  their  own   characteristics 
to   an   unusual    degree.     Such   animals   are    said 
to  be  prepojent.     Inferior  animals  may  be  pre- 
potent,  as  well   as  superior  ones.     It  is  impor- 
tant, then,  to  discover  beforehand  if  an  animal 
is  prepotent,  or  is  what  stockmen  call  a  "good 


262  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

breeder;"  although  prepotency  can   be  positively 
known  only  by  the  character  of  the  offspring. 

484.  The  following   are  more   or  less  certain 
indications   of   prepotency:   the   eyes   are   bright, 
wide  open,  alert,  fairly  wide  apart  and  somewhat 
protruding,  or  the  reverse   of  sunken.    The  hair 
is    fine    and    soft,    the    skin    neither    thick    and 
leathery  nor  too  thin  or  "papery,"  nor  of  flabby 
structure.     The   bones  are  of    moderate  size  and 
have    the    appearance   of   being  fine  grained  and 
strong,   as    indicated    by    head,    limbs,    feet   and 
horns.      Such    animals    are   usually  symmetrical, 
although  they  may  not   be   fat.     In   of  all  their 
movements  they  are  vigorous,  alert  and  powerful 
and,  above  all,  courageous. 

485.  Now   and   then  a   "sport"   appears, — an 
animal  which  has  some  new  or  strange  feature, 
something    that    we    have    rarely    or  never    seen 
before    in    that   breed    (as    a   hornless    or   muley 
animal  amongst  normally  horned  animals).    Such 
occasional   characters  are  usually  not  easily  per- 
petuated, though  sports   have   been  the  origin  of 
many  stable  types,  especially  among  plants.    Per- 
manent improvement  is  more  likely  to  be  secured 
by  slow,  small,  steady  augmentation,  not  by  leaps 
and  bounds. 

486.  The  longer  any  line  of  animals   is   bred 
to  a  single  ideal  or   standard,  the   more  uniform 
the    animals    become.     The    breed  or  the  family 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OF     STOCK  263 

becomes  "fixed."  The  record  of  this  long  line 
of  breeding  is  known  as  the  pedigree.  The 
longer  the  pedigree,  the  greater  is  the  likeli- 
hood that  the  animal  will  reproduce  its  charac- 
ters; that  is,  characteristics  which  have  been 
long  present  are  more  potent  than  those  which 
are  recently  acquired.  Hence,  a  long  pedigree 
should  indicate  more  value  than  a  short  pedigree. 

487.  For  the  general   farmer,  it  is  unwise  to 
buy  a  herd  of  pure-blood  stock,  unless  the  object 
is  to  breed  pure-blood  stock  for  sale.    The  breed- 
ing of  pure- blood  animals  is  a  business  by  itself, 
and  few  persons  are  competent  to  succeed  in  it. 
But  every  farmer  can  greatly  improve  his  stock, 
if  he  starts  with  and  constantly  uses  a  good  pure- 
blood    male    mated    with    good    native   females. 
From  the  grades  so  produced   improvement  will 
be  rapid  and  sure  if  the   poorest  are  constantly 
sold  and  only  the  best  bred  from. 

2.    Where  Stock-raising  Is  Advisable 

488.  Having    now    considered     some    of    the 
principles    involved    in    securing  good   stock,  we 
may   next    inquire    in    what   regions    and    under 
what    conditions    it    can     be    raised     profitably. 
Live-stock    raising   is   particularly    advantageous 
on  the  cheap,  unoccupied   and  uncultivable  lands 
of  the  West  and  South.     In  those  regions,  stock 


264  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

must  depend  largely  or  entirely  on  the  natural 
forage,  which  is  sometimes  good  and  sometimes 
extremely  poor  and  meager.  It  may  require  ten 
to  twenty  acres  to  support  a  single  cow  or  steer 
for  a  year.  If  the  "range"  is  eaten  off  closely 
during  the  summer,  the  animals  perish  in  the 
winter.  In  the  dry  and  nearly  snowless  districts 
of  the  West,  animals  may  subsist  in  the  winter 
on  the  mature  dead  grasses.  Since  the  rainfall 
is  light,  these  matured  grasses,  or  natural  hay, 
retain  most  of  their  nutrient  qualities. 

489.  In    narrow,    sheltered     northern    valleys 
surrounded    by   grass -covered,    rolling    hillsides, 
where  the  cereals  cannot  be  raised  to  advantage, 
live-stock  finds  congenial  surroundings.    In  such 
regions,    for    many   years,   was    the    center   and 
home  of   the    dairy  industries.     Within  the   last 
twenty  years  the   areas   in  which    butter,  cheese 
and  milk  have  been  produced  in  large  quantities 
for   city  consumption   and    export   have   become 
greatly    enlarged     and     multiplied ;     and     many 
whole   farms,   formerly  used   for  the   production 
of  the  ..cereals,  especially  of  maize,  are  now  con- 
ducted as  dairy  farms. 

490.  On   high-priced  land  near  the   markets, 
comparatively  little  live-stock  will  be  kept,  since 
the   manures    necessary  to   keep   the    soil    fairly 
productive  and  filled  with  humus  can  be  easily 
brought    from    the    cities.      The    teams    which 


THE    MANAGEMENT    OF    STOCK  265 

transport  the  products  to  the  markets  often 
return  loaded  with  the  refuse  of  the  city  stables. 
There  is  little  opportunity  for  the  production  of 
live-stock  on  the  market -garden  farm.  Where 
intensive  agriculture  (Ilia)  is  carried  on,  a  few 
animals  to  consume  the  refuse,  in  addition  to 
the  "work  stock,"  may  be  kept  to  advantage. 
Swine  are  often  a  useful  adjunct  to  market- 
garden  farms. 

491.  But  perhaps  the  place  above  all  others 
where    live-stock  finds  the   best  conditions,  and 
where    it    is    most    likely  to   be    improved    from 
generation  to  generation,  is  upon  the  rich,  level 
farms    which    are    adapted    to    many    kinds    of 
crops.     Lands  which    are    capable    of   producing 
cereals,   grasses,   fruits,   vegetables,    flowers    and 
animals  should  be  prized  highly.    On  such  lands 
is  offered  the  greatest  opportunity  for  the  high- 
est agriculture.    Diversified  agriculture,  with  one 
or    two    somewhat    specialized    crops,    leads    to 
steady   and    certain    income,    gives    opportunity 
for  furnishing  continuous   employment   for    both 
men    and     teams,    and     in    all    ways    tends    to 
economy  of  time  and  effort  (354a). 

3.  How  Much  Stock  May  Be  Kept 

492.  Cheap   transportation,   refrigerator   cars, 
and  the  silo,  have  made  it  possible  to  produce 


266  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

and  send  dairy  products  to  market  from  dis- 
tricts far  removed  from  the  great  cities  and  the 
seaboard,  at  a  profit.  On  the  rich  prairies, 
wherever  maize  will  flourish,  one  thousand 
pounds  of  live  stock,  or  one  large  dairy  cow, 
may  be  carried  for  every  two  acres  of  fairly 
good  arable  land.  In  some  cases,  some  extra 
concentrated  foods  may  be  required,  if  the  ani- 
mals are  kept  up  to  their  full  capacity  for 
growth  and  production. 

493.  On   farms    of   the    East,   where    a    large 
percentage  of  the  land  must  be  devoted  to  per- 
manent pasture    because  it   is   steep   and    stony, 
one  animal  of  one  thousand  pounds  to  two  acres 
cannot    be    carried    unless    considerable    concen- 
trated food  is  purchased. 

494.  There    are   two    methods    respecting   the 
number  of   animals  to  be   kept   on   a  farm.     One 
method  requires  that  food  be  bought.     The  other 
method  is  to  keep   only  so  many  animals  as  can 
be    maintained    by   home    resources.     On    lands 
naturally  fertile,  and  on  those  which   have  been 
wisely    managed,    this    latter    practice    is    to    be 
commended.     It   may  be   said,    however,  that   if 
the    stockman   can    secure    increased    profits    by 
risking  something  for  extra  food,  he  should  take 
advantage   of   it ;    but  most   farmers    had   better- 
not  assume  many  risks. 

495.  We  may  now  speak  of   the   practice   of 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OP     STOCK  267 

purchasing  most  of  the  grain  or  other  concen- 
trated food  which  is  required.  These  foods  are 
mostly  by-products  (437a),  such  as  bran,  oil- 
meal,  cotton -seed  meal,  and  the  gluten  meals. 
It  is  said  that  it  is  cheaper  to  purchase  con- 
centrated foods  than  to  produce  them  on  the 
farm,  and  much  stress  is  laid  on  the  resultant 
plant-food  or  manure  which  is  secured  from 
feeding  these  products. 

496.  A   ton   of  wheat   bran  contains  the  fol- 
lowing amounts  of  potential  plant -food  in  every 
thousand  pounds  : 

26.7  1V>«.  nitrogen 

28.9    "     phosphoric  acid 

16.1    "    potash 

This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  a  thousand 
pounds  of  bran  would  be  worth,  for  manurial 
purposes,  $5.57,  or  $11.14  per  ton — computing 
the  nitrogen  at  12  cents,  phosphoric  acid  at  6 
cents  and  the  potash  at  4  cents  per  pound. 

497.  If  the   bran  is  fed  to  milch  cows,  it  is 
estimated  that  riot  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the 
plant-food  constituents  of  the  food  will  be  found 
in  the  manure.     If  this   be   so,  then  the  manure 
which    is    the    result   of    feeding    one    thousand 
pounds  of  bran  would   be  worth  $2.79,  or  from 
feeding  a  ton   of   bran,   $5.58.     If   the   bran    be 
fed   to  animals   that  neither  gain   nor   lose,  and 
are  not  producing  milk  or  other  products,  then 


268  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

nearly  all    of   the   manurial    constituents   of    the 
food  are  found  in  the  excrements. 

498.  This  practice  of  purchasing  food  would 
appear   to    be  wise    on    a   farm   poorly  supplied 
with   plant -food.     It   may   be   assumed   that  the 
increase  in  growth,  or  the  products  secured  from 
the     animals   which     consume     these     purchased 
foods,  would   equal  or  exceed  the  cost  of   such 
foods.     If  so,  the  value  of  the  excrements  would 
be  clear  additional  profit. 

499.  In   practice,   however,   it   is    found    that 
the   purchase    of    these    supplemental    foods    be- 
comes necessary  largely  because  a  wise  use  has 
not  been  made   of   the  land.     If   need   of   these 
purchased  foods  arises  because  but  a  half  crop 
is    secured   instead   of   a   full    one,   then   greater 
attention    should    be  given   to    making   the    land 
more  productive.     In  many  cases,  the  purchased 
foods    are   required    because   the    production    of 
grasses    and    the    other   forage   plants    has    been 
neglected.      Full     crops     and    wisely    purchased 
concentrated     foods     lead     directly    to     the     im- 
provement of  animals   and  land,  and,  therefore, 
to  permanent  prosperity. 

500.  When    the    coarser    products    are    used 
for  food   and  bedding,  and  a  goodly  portion  of 
the  grains  are  fed  at  home,  it  is  possible,  with 
care,  to  return  to  the  fields  three-fourths  of  all 
the  plant -food  which  is  removed  from  the  fields 


THE    MANAGEMENT     OF     STOCK  269 

to  the  barns  in  the  crops.  The  ease  with  which 
a  farm  may  be  maintained  on  a  high  plane  of 
productiveness  when  animals  are  made  promi- 
nent, and  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  high 
productivity  when  they  are  wanting,  should 
emphasize  the  part  which  the  animal  plays  in 
securing  the  best  results. 

4.   The  Care  of  Stock 
4a.  Housing 

501.  Every  effort  should  be  exerted  to  make 
the  animals  comfortable.    Otherwise,  they  cannot 
do  their   best.     Animals,   like    people,   are    most 
useful    when    they    are    happy.       Provide    them 
good    quarters.     As    to   the    style    and    kind    of 
barns,   it   matters    little   so    long  as    the    desired 
results  are  secured. 

502.  Animals  need  much   air.     A  single  cow 
requires  in   twenty-four  hours   3,125  cubic   feet; 
that  is,  all  of  the  air  which  would  be  contained 
in  a  box -stall   about  18  feet   by  17%  feet  by  10 
feet,  if  she  has  a  full  supply.     As  a  matter  of 
practice,   however,  a  cow   is   allowed   about   400 
cubic    feet    of    air.     Twice    as    much    air    space 
should  be  provided  in  the  horse  stable  as  in  the 
cow  stable. 

503.  In   the    barn,   free   circulation   of   air  is 
restricted  ;   therefore,  provision  should   be  made 
for  ventilation.    Large  amounts  of  air  introduced 


270  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

at  few  points  create  dangerous  drafts.  Air 
should  be  taken  into  and  removed  from  the 
stable  in  many  small  streams.  If  the  stable  is 
over -ventilated,  it  may  become  too  cold.  If  at 
least  one  cubic  foot  of  air  space  is  allowed  in 
the  stable  for  each  pound  of  live  animal  kept 
in  it,  the  air  will  not  have  to  be  changed  so 
often  as  when  the  animals  are  so  crowded, — as 
is  often  the  case, — that  only  one-half  to  one- 
fourth  as  much  air  space  is  provided. 

504.  A    barn  with    a  wall    roughly    boarded, 
both  inside  and  outside,  and  the  space  filled  with 
straw,    furnishes    nearly   ideal    conditions,    since 
the    air    will     be    strained    gently    through    the 
straw.     This  ventilation  should   be  supplemented 
by    a     few    small,    easily    controlled     openings. 
Stables    should   not    be    kept   above    50    degrees 
nor   fall   below  32   degrees,  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time. 

505.  Abundant  provision  should  be  made  for 
the  ingress   of   light.     It  is   best  if   the   light  is 
admitted    at  the   rear   of   the    animal,   especially 
for  horses.     Provision  should  also   be  made  for 
temporarily  storing  the  excrements,  both  to  keep 
the  stable  clean  and  to  prevent  loss  of  the  val- 
uable   constituents    of    the   manures.     No    excre- 
ments  should  be   thrown  out  of  the  windows  or 
doors  of  the  stable  into  the  open  weather,  where 
they  form  a  nuisance  and  are  wasted  (120,  120&). 


THE    MANAGEMENT    OF    STOCK  271 


46.    Water 


506.  All  nutriment  is  carried  into  the  system, 
and    through    it,    by   means    of    water.       Since 
water    is    the    universal    carrier,    it    should    ever 
be   present    in   the    animal    tissues    in    quantities 
sufficient  to  accomplish  the  desired  results.    Ani- 
mals should  have  water  at  least  twice  a  day. 

507.  Animals   fed    a   narrow  ration  (453)  re- 
quire   more  water   than   those  which    are    fed    a 
wide    ration.     A  cow  in   milk  may  require   from 
fifty  to  eighty  pounds  of  water  daily.    If  the  water 
is  freezing  cold,  she  will  not  drink  freely  and  the 
production  of   milk  will    be   reduced.     Moreover, 
the  water  must   be  raised   to  the  temperature  of 
the   body   by  the   heat  generated   in   the  animal. 
This  may  require  a  part  of  the  energy  of  the  food 
which  might  otherwise  have  been  turned  to  some 
useful  purpose.    If  water  at  a  temperature  of  about 
60°F.  is  provided  for  the  stock  in  cold  weather,  the 
animals  will   not   only  enjoy  it,  but  will   not  re- 
quire as  much  food  as  when  compelled  to  drink 
water  near  the  freezing  point.     In   large   herds, 
coal  may  well  be  substituted  for  meal  in  heating 
the  drinking  water. 

4c.  Food 

508.  So    many  varieties   of   acceptable    cattle 
foods  can  be   secured   cheaply  in  America,  that 


272  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

full  opportunity  is  offered  for  selecting  those 
which  give  promise  of  producing  the  particular 
results  desired  in  any  given  case.  Animals 
which  are  used  continuously  at  hard  work 
require  a  wide  or  carbonaceous  ration  to  sup- 
ply energy.  Young  animals  do  best  on  a  narrow 
or  nitrogenous  ration.  Milch  cows  do  best  on 
intermediate  rations.  Cold  stables  imply  a  wide 
ration  ;  warm  stables,  narrow  rations.  The  food 
of  young  herbivorous  animals,  of  those  that 
work,  and  of  cows  in  milk,  may  be  made  up  of 
about  one  pound  of  grains  or  other  concentrated 
foods  to  three  pounds  of  roughage. 

509.  The  amount  of  the  ration  and  the  time 
of  feeding  should  be  governed   according  to  the 
character    and    habits    of    the    animal.      Horses 
should     be     fed     more     often     than     cattle     and 
sheep,  since  their  stomachs   are  relatively  small. 
Horses    are    inclined    to    eat   at    night.      Cattle, 
sheep  and  swine  seldom  eat  after  dark. 

510.  The  ration  for  any  one  meal  should  not 
be   so   liberal    as  to  injure  the   appetite   for  the 
one  that  follows.    Regularity  in  time  of  feeding, 
and  skill  in  presenting  the  food  in  an  appetizing 
form,  are  prime  factors  of  success. 

SUGGESTIONS    ON  CHAPTER  XVI 

479a.    The    breeder   must    know  the    names    of    the    various 
parts  of  the  animal.     The  parts  of   a  dairy  eow  are  designated 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OP     STOCK 


273 


in  Fig.  91,  which  represents  a  "typical  Holstein-Friesian  cow:-" 
J,  head  ;  2,  forehead  ;  3,  eyes  ;  4,  face  ;  5,  muzzle  ;  6,  ear  ;  ?, 
horn  ;  8,  neck  ;  9,  throat  ;  10,  shoulder  ;  11,  shoulder  tops,  or 
withers  ;  12,  chest  ;  13,  crops  ;  14,  chine  ;  15,  back  ;  16,  loin  : 
17,  hip  or  hook  ;  18,  rump  ;  19,  thurl  or  pin-bone  ;  20,  quarter  : 
21,  thigh  ;  22,  hock  ;  23,  leg  ;  24,  forearm  ;  25,  hoof  ;  26,  fore- 


Fij,'.  '.'I.     l>iugrum  to  show  the  parts  of  a.  dairy  cow  to  which  distinctive 
names  have  been  given. 

ribs;  27,  back-ribs;  28,  flank;  29,  belly;  30,  f  ore- flan  k  ;  31, 
stifle  ;  32,  tail  ;  33,  switch  ;  34,  udder  ;  35,  setting  of  tail  ;  3(5, 
quarters  of  udder  ;  37,  teats.  The  dewlap  is  the  flap  of  the 
throat  below  9.  The  escutcheon  is  the  part  surrounding  the 
udder  behind,  on  which  the  hair  grows  upwards. 

480a.  Following  is  the  ideal  of  a  dairy  cow  (compare  Fig. 
92)  :  The  cow  should  have  a  small  head,  a  large  muzzle  and 
mouth,  a  clean-cut  nose  or  face,  that  is,  one  free  from  fleshy 
growth,  a  straight  or  dishing  forehead,  bright  prominent  eyes, 
and  a  thin,  long  neck  and  moderate-sized  horns.  She  may  be 
from  one  to  two  inches  lower  at  the  shoulders  than  at  the  hips. 
Her  general  form,  when  looked  at  from  the  side,  should  be 
wedge -shape,  and  the  same  shape  should  be  apparent  when 
viewed  from  the  rear.  The  shoulders  may  be  thin,  lean  and 
bony  ;  the  back  rather  long  and  rugged  ;  the  loin  fairly  broad. 
but  not  too  broad,  or  the  animal  will  tend  to  put  on  beef.  The 


274 


THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


hip  should  be  thrown  well  ahead,  which  gives  a  long,  powerful 
hind  quarter.  The  thighs,  of  necessity,  are  thin  ;  the  flank 
well  up  ;  the  hind  leg,  usually,  quite  crooked,  and  the  tail  long. 
If  the  tail  be  long,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  vertebrae  of  the 
back  bone  are  somewhat  loosely  united,  which  is  an  indication 
of  good  milking  qualities.  The  pony-built,  smooth-made,  short- 
bodied,  rotund  cow  is  seldom  a  good  milker.  The  teats  should 
be  sizeable  and  placed  wide  apart  ;  the  limbs  neither  too  small  nor 


Fig.  92.     An  ideal  dairy  cow. 

too  large.  The  udder  should  not  be  very  pendent  or  loose,  and 
should  extend  well  to  the  rear,  also  well  to  the  front,  and  should 
have  a  broad  and  firm  setting  on  the  abdomen.  The  animal  should 
have  a  rugged,  rather  lean,  but  not  a  delicate  appearance.  All 
animals,  except  those  kept  for  speed,  should  have  rather  short 
limbs,  as  this  indicates,  to  some  extent,  constitution  and  power. 
It  will  be  noticed  (Fig.  92)  that  the  milk  veins,  which  extend 
from  the  udder  forward  on  the  abdomen,  are  large  and  promi- 
nent. These  indicate  that  the  cow  is  a  great  milker  or,  in  other 
words,  that  an  ample  supply  of  blood  has  been  furnished  to  the 
udder  by  the  arteries,  and  hence  a  large  amount  of  blood  must 


THE     MANAGEMENT    OF    STOCK  275 

be  returned  through  the  veins.  In  time,  the  veins  enlarge  in 
order  to  make  room  for  the  return  of  the  blood  from  the  udder. 
In  some  of  the  better  milking  strains,  these  large  veins  are  in- 
herited, and  can  be  seen  and  felt  on  young  animals  which  have 
never  given  milk. 

480i.  Contrast  the  ideal  points  of  the  beef  animal.  This 
animal,  like  the  milch  animal,  should  have  a  small  head  and 
horns,  and  be  light  in  the  throat-latch.  If  the  neck,  legs  and 
tail  be  removed  from  the  beef  animal,  the  body  is  almost  a  per- 
fect parallelogram.  The  neck  is  short  and  very  heavy  where 
it  is  set  onto  the  shoulder,  the  back  straight,  thighs  built  well 
out  at  the  rear,  and  thick.  The  body  of  the  animal  is  more 
rounded,  the  short  ribs  or  loin  is  broad,  the  flank  is  well 
down,  the  shoulders  are  heavy  and  well  covered  with  meat, 
the  floor  of  the  chest  broad,  which  places  the  front  legs  wide 
apart.  The  whole  structure  of  the  animal  indicates  slowness  of 
motion,  quietness,  and  a  disposition  to  lay  on  flesh  and  fat,  or 
in  other  words,  to  be  selfish.  No  milk  veins  appear,  the  tail 
is  shorter  than  the  milch  cow's,  and  the  receptacle  for  milk 
small.  As  a  rule,  the  beef  animal  has  a  softer  and  more  velvety 
touch  than  the  dairy  animal,  since  the  one  is  usually  fat  and  the 
other  lean.  A  strong,  low  brisket  (the  hanging  part  between  the 
fore  legs)  is  desired,  not  because  the  flesh  of  it  is  good,  for  it 
is  quite  inferior,  but  because  it  is  an  outward  indication  of  su- 
perior feeding  qualities.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  dairy 
cow  the  brisket  is  prominent,  but  thin.  It  indicates  good  feed- 
ing qualities  :  that  is,  a  good  appetite  and  power  to  digest  and 
assimilate  food.  True,  it  seems  to  have  no  direct  connection 
with  the  production  of  milk,  but  animals  which  are  markedly 
deficient  in  brisket  and  thin  in  the  waist  usually  have  delicate 
constitutions  and  precarious  appetites. 

480r.  A  moderately  thick,  elastic  skin  and  soft,  velvety  hair 
are  much  desired,  not  only  in  cattle  but  in  horses.  A  thin  or 
papery  skin  denotes  lack  of  constitution.  A  thick,  inelastic  skin 
denotes  unresponsivenessin  the  production  of  either  milk  or  beef. 

48(W.  With  these  ideals  for  cattle,  compare  some  of  the 
points  of  excellence  in  a  trotting  horse  :  The  front  legs  have 


276  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

a  long,  low,  rhythmic  motion  when  the  animal  is  alert,  while  the 
hind  quarters  are  lowered  and  widened,  and  the  hind  legs,  with 
their  wide,  all-embracing  sweep,  show  how  and  where  the  great 
propelling  power  is  located. 

481a.  The  scoring  of  animals  is  a  matter  of  ideals.  The  person 
assumes  that  a  total  of  100  points  represents  the  perfect  animal, 
each  part  or  quality  being  represented  by  a  certain  figure. 
Any  animal  may  then  be  judged  (as  at  a  fair)  by  this  standard 
or  score.  Definite  scores  have  been  adopted  by  various  breeders' 
associations,  colleges,  etc.  For  illustration,  two  scores  are  now  given. 

4816.  Following  is  the  score  for  a  dairy  cow  used  by  the 
College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University: 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  : 

Weight,  estimated Ibs. ;   actual Ibs. 

Form,  wedge  shape  as  viewed  from  front,  side  and  top..        5 
Quality,  hair  fine,  soft  ;    skin    mellow,    loose,    medium 

thickness,  secretion  yellow  ;    bone  clean 8 

Constitution,  vigorous,  not  inclined  to  beefiness 8 

HEAD  AND  NECK  : 

Muzzle,  clean  cut  ;   mouth  large  ;   nostrils  large 1 

•     Eyes,  large,  bright 1 

Face,  lean,  long  ;   quiet  expression 1 

Forehead,  broad,  slightly  dished 1 

Ears,  medium  size  ;   yellow  inside,  fine  texture 1 

Neck,  fine,  medium  length  ;  throat  clean  ;  light  dewlap..  2 

FORK  AND  HIND  QUARTERS  : 

Withers,  lean,  thin 1 

Shoulders,  light,  oblique  2 

Hips,  far  apart  ;   level  between  hooks 2 

Rump,  long,  wide 2 

Pin-bones  or  thurls,  high,  wide  apart 1 

Thighs,  thin ,  long 2 

Legs,  straight,  short  ;   shank  fine 1 

Tail,  long,  slim  ;    fine  switch 1 

BODY :  , 

Chest,  deep,  low  ;  girth  large 8 

Ribs,  broad,  well  sprung,  long,  wide  apart;  large  stomach.  5 

Back,  lean,  straight,  chine  open 3 

Loin,  broad,  level 2 

Flank,  moderately  low 1 

Navel,  large 1 


THE    MANAGEMENT    OP    STOCK  277 

MILK-SECRETING  ORGANS  •. 

Udder,  long,  attached  high  and  full  behind,  extending  far 

in  front  and  full ;   quarters  even 15 

Udder,  capacious,  flexible,  with  loose,  pliable  skin  covered 

with  short,  fine  hair 13 

Teats,  large,  evenly  placed 4 

Milk  reins,  large,  tortuous,  large  milk  wells 6 

Escutcheon,  spreading  over   thighs,  extending   high   and 

wide  ;    large  thigh  ovals 2 

Total 100 

48 Ic.    The  score  for  a  beef  steer  as  used  by  the  Department 

of  Agriculture,  University  of  Wisconsin,  is  the  following  : 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  : 

Weight,  estimated Ibs. ;   according  to  age..  6 

Form,  straight  top-line  and  under-line  ;  deep,  broad,  low, 

set  stylish 8 

Qua!  it  i/.  firm  handling  ;    hair  fine  ;   pliable  skin  ;   dense 

bone  ;   evenly  fleshed 8 

Tempera  inent,  quiet 5 

HEAD  AND  NECK  : 

Muzzle,  mouth  large;   lips  thin  ;    nostrils  large 1 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 1 

Face,  short  ;   quiet  expression 1 

Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture 1 

Neck,  thick,  short  ;  throat  clean 2 

FORE  QUARTERS : 

Shoulder  Vein,  full 3 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top;    snug 4 

Brisket,  advanced,  breast  wide 2 

Dewlap,  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping 1 

Legs,  straight,  short  ;   arm  full  ;    shank  fine,  smooth 3 

BODY  : 

Chett,  full,  deep,  wide  ;   girth  large  ;   crops  full 8 

Ribs,  long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed 6 

Hack,  broad,  straight 6 

Loin,  thick,  broad 5 

Flank,  full,  even  with  under-line 4 


278  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

HIND  QUARTERS : 

Hips,  smoothly  covered  ;    distance  apart   in   proportion 

with  other  parts 4 

Rump,  long,  even,  wide,  tail  head  smooth,  not  patchy 5 

Pin-bones,  not  prominent,  far  apart 3 

Thighs,  full 3 

Twist,  deep,  plump 4 

Purse,  full,  indicating  fleshiness 2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  shank  fine,  smooth 3 

Total  . .                                                                          . .  100 


486a.  A  correct,  long  pedigree  is  also  evidence  that  no 
crosses  outside  of  the  breed  have  been  made  within  the  time 
covered  by  the  record.  Then  the  longer  the  pedigree,  the  longer 
the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  breed  was  formed.  Many 
breeds,  as  Shropshires,  Berkshires  and  the  like,  start  from  mixed  - 
blood  animals  more  or  less  remote.  The  term  "pure  breed" 
simply  means  that  a  breed  of  animals  has  been  bred  so  long 
within  the  variety  that  a  fair  degree  of  uniformity  in  all  lead- 
ing characteristics  has  been  secured,  and  power  acquired  to 
transmit  the  leading  qualities  with  a  fair  degree  of  certainty. 

487a.  If  the  farmer  has  a  dairy,  let  him  resolve  to  breed 
from  no  animal  which  gives  less  than  4,000  pounds  of  milk  a 
year.  Animals  which  give  less  than  this  amount  are  often 
kept  at  a  loss,  and  they  should  be  disposed  of  at  once.  Every 
dairyman  should  also  test  his  milk  for  richness,  by  means  of 
the  Babcock  test.  Eead  Wing's  "Milk  and  Its  Products,"  for 
instruction  on  the  Babcock  milk  test,  and  other  matters  of 
dairying. 

491«.  There  is  a  marked  tendency  for  farmers  to  run  too 
much  to  one  thing,  following  the  lead  of  some  person  who  has 
been  successful  in  a  particular  line.  In  some  localities  in  the 
East,  especially  in  the  great  grape  and  hop  districts,  the  ill 
effects  of  specialized  agriculture  are  often  seen.  When  grapes 
and  hops  bring  prices  which  barely  pay  for  picking  them, — and 
this  not  infrequently  occurs, — the  farmer  becomes  discouraged, 
neglects  his  plantations,  and  when  prices  rise  to  the  point  where 
profits  should  be  received,  the  yield  per  acre  falls  so  low  by 


THE    MANAGEMENT    OP    STOCK  279 

reason  of  the  neglect  that  no  financial  recovery  is  possible.  In 
these  districts  live  stock  should  play  an  important  part. 

4916.  It  is  found  that  wherever  the  areas  of  special  crops 
are  restricted,  and  rotation  and  mixed  husbandry  are  not 
seriously  disturbed,  fair  profits  are  realized  every  year,  and  the 
average  yields  of  grapes  or  hops  per  acre  are  much  above  the 
average  of  the  large  plantations.  Specialization  is  seen  to  have 
a  marked,  deleterious  effect  on  the  youth  of  the  districts  where 
it  is  practiced  in  a  large  way,  and  often  on  the  productivity  of 
the  soil  as  well.  The  introduction  of  domestic  animals  in  con- 
siderable numbers  tends  to  change  all  this.  Moreover,  the  ele- 
vating effect  of  coming  into  immediate  contact  with  animal  life, 
especially  on  the  young,  should  be  understood  and  prized. 

500a.  A  crop  of  50  bushels  of  maize  per  acre,  and  the 
accompanying  stalks,  contains  about  64  pounds  of  nitrogen,  24 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  36  pounds  of  potash.  If,  when 
fed  to  animals,  only  one-half  of  the  plant-food  removed  by  the 
crop  is  returned,  then  but  32  pounds  of  nitrogen,  12  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  18  pounds  of  potash  will  be  lost  from  each 
acre.  When  clover  is  in  the  rotation,  it  will  restore  most  of 
this  lost  nitrogen.  The  plant  precedes  the  animal.  He  who 
has  mastered  the  art  of  producing  plants  successfully  has 
learned  more  than  half  of  agriculture. 

5006.  Animals  play  such  an  important  part  in  maintaining 
the  productivity  of  the  land  that  he  who  farms  without  giving 
them  a  prominent  place  should  be  able  to  furnish  good  reasons 
for  so  doing. 

510rt.  Remember  that  thoughtful  care,  solicitude,  love  for 
the  animal,  and  timely  attention  to  the  many  details,  play  an 
important  part  in  animal  industry.  That  which  is  gained  by 
superior  breeding,  food  and  comfortable  buildings  may  be 
partly  lost  if  kindness  is  wanting.  "Speak  to  the  animals  as 
you  should  to  a  lady,  kindly." 


Fig.  93.   The  head  of  the  flock. 


GLOSSARY 

(Numbers  refer  to  Paragraphs.) 

^Esthetic.    Appealing  to  the  faculties  of  taste,  as  of  color,  music. 

Agriculture.     Farming.     1,  la. 

Albumin.     A  nitrogenous  organic  compound,  present  in  both  plants  and 

animals.     370,  442a. 
Aliment.     Food. 

Alimentary  canal.     The  digestive  channel  or  tract.     377. 
Ameliorate.     To  improve. 
Amenable.     Open  to,  liable  to  :  a  loose  soil  is  amenable  to  the  action  of 

air,  but  a  very  hard  soil  is  not. 
Amendment.     A  substance  which  influences  the  texture  rather  than  the 

plant-food  of  the  soil.     58. 
Annual.     A  plant  which  lives  only  one  year.     Beans  and  pigweeds  are 

examples. 

Antiseptic.     A  substance  which  kills  germs  or  microbes.     284a,  387«. 
Available..     Capable  of  being  used  ;  usable.     436. 
Axil.     Angle  above  the  junction  of  a  leaf-stalk,  flower-stalk,  or  branch 

with  its  parent  stem. 
Biennial.     A  plant  which  lives  two  years.     It  usually  blooms  and  seeds 

the  second  year.     Mulleins  and  parsnips  are  examples. 
Botany.     Knowledge  and  science  of  plants.     !('». 
Breaking   down.      Said    of    hard   soils  when    they   become    mellow  and 

crumbly. 
Budding.     A  kind  of  grafting,  in  which   the  cion  or  bud  is  very  short, 

and  inserted  under  the  bark  or  on  the  wood  of  the  stock  (not  into 

the  wood). 
By-product.     A  product  incidentally  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of 

something  else.     437a,  495. 
Callus.     The  healing  tissue  on  a  wound.     234. 
Capillary.    Hair-like.     Said  of  very  thin  or  fine  channels,  especially 

those  in  which  water  moves  by  the  force  of  capillary  attraction. 
Carbohydrate.      An    organic  or  carbon    compound,  in  which  hydrogen 

and  oxygon  occur  in  the   same   proportions  as  they  do   in  water. 

Sugar,  starch,  woody  fiber  are  carbohydrates.     197a. 

(281) 


282  GLOSSARY 

Carbon.  A  gas,  C,  existing  in  small  quantities  in  the  atmosphere  ; 
also  in  a  solid  form  in  charcoal  and  the  diamond. 

Carbon  dioxid.    A  gas,  CO2;  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Carnivorous.     Feeding  on  flesh.     174. 

Casein.  Milk  curd,  the  chief  albuminoid  of  milk.  It  is  the  main  con- 
stituent of  cheese.  370. 

Catch-crop.  A  crop  grown  between  plants  of  a  regular  crop,  in  the 
interval  of  time  between  regular  crops.  109. 

Cereal.  A  grain  belonging  to  the  grass  family,  as  wheat,  maize,  rice, 
oats,  barley,  rye. 

Chemistry.     That  science  which  treats  of  composition   of  matter.     18 

Chlorophyll.     The  green  matter  in  plants.     198,  198«. 

Cion.  A  part  of  a  plant  inserted  in  a  plant,  with  the  intention  that  it 
shall  grow.  236. 

Climatology.  Knowledge  and  science  of  climate.  It  includes  the 
science  of  weather  (local  climate)  or  meteorology.  19. 

Coagulate.     To  curdle;  as  of  milk. 

Cold  frame.  A  glass-covered  box  or  frame  which  is  heated  by  the 
sun,  and  in  which  plants  are  grown  or  kept. 

Coming  true.     Reproducing  the  variety.     215«,  227. 

Comminute.     To  break  up,  fine,  pulverize.     29a. 

Compost.     Rotted  organic  matter.     34«. 

Conservation.     Saving.     82. 

Cover-crop.  A  catch-crop  which  is  designed  to  cover  the  soil  in  fall, 
winter  and  early  spring.  109,  116. 

Cultivator.  An  implement  which  prepares  the  surface  of  the  ground 
by  turning  it  or  lifting  it.  The  spring-tooth  harrow  is  really  a 
cultivator 

Cutting.  A  part  of  a  plant  inserted  in  soil  or  other  medium  with  the 
intention  that  it  shall  grow  and  make  another  plant;  slip.  231. 

Dehorning.     Removing  the  horns  from  animals.     120«. 

Dependent.  Depending  on  other  means  than  its  own,  as  on  the  con- 
ditions in  which  it  lives.  182. 

Denude.     To  strip,  to  make  bare,  to  wash  away.     266. 

Dormant.     Latent,  sleeping,  not  active. 

Drought.     A  very  dry  spell  or  season. 

Ecology.  The  science  which  treats  of  the  inter-relationships  of  ani- 
mals and  plants,  and  of  their  relations  to  their  environments. 
The  study  of  the  habits  and  modes  of  life  of  organisms.  The 
migrations  of  birds,  distribution  of  plants,  nesting  habits  of 
bumble-bees,  are  subjects  of  ecology.  Often  spelled  o?cology.  16a. 


GLOSSARY  283 

Element.  A  substance  which  is  composed  of  nothing  else;  an  original 
form  of  matter.  \'lln. 

Emulsion.  A  more  or  less  permanent  and  diffusible  combination  of 
oils  or  fats  and  water.  396,  396a. 

Energy.  Power  ;  force.  Every  moving,  changing  or  vibrating  body  or 
agent  expends  energy  or  force  ;  and  this  force  is  transferred  to 
some  other  body  or  form,  for  nothing  is  lost.  The  energy  of  sun- 
light is  expressed  in  heat,  light,  and  other  ways.  The  energy 
that  is  required  to  produce  the  food  is  expended  as  bodily  heat, 
muscular  or  nervous  energy,  and  in  other  ways. 

Entomology.     Science  of  insects. 

Environment.  The  surroundings  of  an  animal  or  plant, — the  conditions 
in  which  it  lives.  Comprises  climate,  soil,  moisture,  altitude, 
etc.  166. 

Erosion.     Wearing  away;  denudation. 

Evolution.  The  doctrine  that  the  present  kinds  of  plants  and  animal* 
are  derived,  or  evolved,  from  other  previous  kinds. 

Excretion.  A  secretion  which  is  of  no  further  use  to  the  animal  or 
plant,  and  which  is  thrown  off  ;  as  sweat.  363«. 

Extraneous.     External  ;  from  the  outside  ;  foreign  to.     54,  59. 

Extrinsic.  Secondary,  external,  from  the  outside.  The  apple  has 
extrinsic  value, — that  is,  it  is  valuable  as  a  marketable  or  money- 
getting  article,  aside  from  its  value  as  nourishment.  See  intrinsic. 

Eye.     A.  bud  ;  a  cutting  of  a  single  bud.     235. 

Farm-practice.  The  management  of  the  farm  ;  the  practical  side  of 
farming.  It  comprises  the  handling  of  land,  tools,  plants,  ani- 
mals. 11. 

Farmstead.     A  farm  borne  or  establishment. 

Feeding  standard.  The  ideal  amount  and  quality  of  food  for  a  given 
purpose.  464. 

Fermentation.  The  process  by  means  of  which  starch,  sugar,  casein, 
and  other  organic  substances  are  changed  or  broken  down,  and 
new  combinations  made.  It  is  usually  attended  with  heat  and  the 
giving  off  of  gas. 

Fertility.     Ability  of  the  land  to  produce  plants.     105. 

Filter.     Elongated  or  string-like  tissues. 

Fibrin.  An  insoluble  but  digestible  albuminoid.  It  is  present  in 
blood-clots. 

Flocculate.     To  make  granular  or  crumbly.     58n. 

Fodder.      Food  for  animals.     428. 

Foraye.  1'lants  which  are  fed  to  animals  in  their  natural  condition,  or 
when  merely  dried.  330. 


284  GLOSSARY 

Free  water.  Standing  water,  or  that  moving  under  the  influence  of 
gravitation,  as  distinguished  from  that  held  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion. 64,  65,  78. 

Function.  The  particular  or  appointed  action  of  any  organ  or  part. 
The  function  of  the  eye  is  vision  ;  that  of  the  heart  is  distributing 
the  blood  ;  that  of  the  root  is  taking  in  food.  What  an  organ  does. 

Fungicide.     A  substance  which  kills  fungi.     298. 

Furrow.     The  trench  left  by  the  plow.     91a.  [91,   91a. 

Furrow-slice.     The  strip  of   earth  which  is   turned  over  by  the  plow. 

Gang-plow.  An  implement  comprising  two  or  more  individual  plows. 
Figs.  64,  65. 

Geology.    The  science  of  the  formation  of  the  crust  of  the  earth.    20. 

Germ.     See  micro-organism. 

Glacier.      A  slowly  moving   field    or  mass    of    ice  ;     a    frozen   stream. 

Glands.     Secreting  organs.     3636.  [39,  39a. 

Gluten.     The  soluble  nitrogenous  part  of  flour.     370. 

GlycogfH.  A  starch,  or  starch-like  material,  formed  in  the  animal  body, 
and  from  which  sugar  is  formed.  364,  364a. 

Grafting.     The  practice  of  inserting  a  cion  or  bud  in  a  plant.     236. 

Grazing.     Pasturing. 

Green-crops.  Crops  designed  to  be  plowed  under  for  the  purpose  o! 
improving  the  soil.  74,  109. 

Hard-pan.     Hard,  retentive  subsoil.     94a. 

Harrow.  An  implement  which  pulverizes  the  surface  of  the  ground 
without  inverting  it  or  lifting  it. 

Heading-in.     Cutting  back  the  tips  or  ends  of  branches.     288. 

Heavy  soils.  Soils  which  are  hard,  dense,  lumpy,  or  those  which  are 
very  fertile.  Does  not  refer  to  weight. 

Herbivorous.     Feeding  on  plants.     174. 

Horticulture.  Arts  and  sciences  pertaining  to  cultivation  of  fruits,  flow- 
ers, vegetables,  and  ornamental  plants.  It  is  part  of  agriculture.  9,  9e. 

Host.  An  animal  or  plant  on  which  a  parasite  lives.  2926.  A  plant  or 
animal  which  makes  it  possible  for  another  plant  or  animal  to  grow- 
alongside  of  it.  312a. 

Hotbed.  A  glass-covered  box  or  frame  which  is  artificially  heated 
(usually  by  means  of  fermenting  manure),  and  in  which  plants  are 
grown. 

Humus.      Vegetable   mold.      It  may  contain   the   remains   of   animals. 

Husbandry.     Farming,     la.  [33,  33a. 

Hygroscopic.    Holding  moisture  as  a  film  on  the  surface.     64,  67. 

Inhibit.     To  prevent  or  check.     188. 


GLOSSARY  285 

Inorganic.  Matter  which  has  act  been  elaborated  into  other  compounds 
by  plants  or  animals.  All  minerals  are  inorganic  ;  also,  air  and 
water.  256. 

Insalii-ation.     Mixing  with  saliva. 

Insecticide.    A  substance  which  kills  insects.    295. 

Internode.     In  plants,  the  space  between  the  joints.     205. 

Inter-tillage.     Tillage  between  plants.     85,  85a. 

Intrinsic.  Peculiar  to,  internal,  from  the  inside.  The  apple  has  in- 
trinsic value, — that  is,  it  is  valuable  of  itself,  to  eat,  wholly  aside 
from  the  money  it  brings.  See  extrinsic. 

Irrigation.  The  practice  of  artificially  supplying  plants  with  water, 
especially  on  a  large  scale.  63,  63a. 

Irritable.  In  plants,  responding  to  external  agents,  as  to  wind,  sun- 
shine, heat.  183,  208. 

Larva  (plural  lamp).     The  worm-like  stage  of  insects. 

Layer.  A  part  of  a  plant  which  is  made  to  take  root  while  still  attached 
to  the  parent,  but  which  is  intended  to  be  severed  and  to  make  an 
independent  plant.  229. 

Leaching.     Passing  through,  and  going  off  in  drainage  waters. 

Leguminous.     Belonging  to  the  Leguruinoste  or  pea  family.     110. 

Lichen.  A  low  form  of  plant-life,  allied  to  algae  and  fungi.  The 
plant  body  is  usually  grayish  or  dull-colored  and  dryish.  On  tree 
trunks  it  is  usually  called  "moss."  29«.  Fig.  3. 

Light  soils.  Soils  which  are  very  loose  and  open,  or  which  are  poor 
in  plant-food.  Does  not  refer  to  weight. 

Harking  out.  Making  lines  or  marks  on  the  land  to  facilitate  sowing 
or  planting.  103. 

Medium.  A  fundamental  or  underlying  substance:  soil  is  a  medium 
for  holding  water.  An  agent:  a  root  is  a  medium  for  transporting 
water.  49. 

Microbe.     See  micro-organism. 

Micro-organism.  A  microscopic  organism.  It  may  be  either  plant  or 
animal;  but  the  term  is  commonly  restricted  to  bacteria  or  mi- 
crobes or  germs,  which  are  now  classed  with  plants.  35a. 

Mineral  matter.    Earthy  matter, — iron,  potash,  lime,  phosphorus,  etc 

Moldboard.  The  curved  part  of  the  plow  which  inverts  the  furrow- 
slice.  91. 

Mulch.    A  cover  on  the  soil.    83. 

Nitrate.    A  compound  in  which  NO3  is  combined  with  a  base. 

Nitrification.    The  changing  of  nitrogen  into  a  nitrate.     137. 

Nitrite.    A  compound  in  which  NOZ  is  combined  with  a  base. 


286  GLOSSARY 

Nitrogen.  A  gas,  N,  comprising  approximately  four-fifths  of  the 
atmosphere. 

Nutrient.    Food;  aliment. 

Nutrition.  The  process  of  promoting  and  sustaining  growth  and  work 
of  animal  and  plant. 

Nutritive  ratio.  The  proportion  between  the  proteids  and  other  con- 
stituents in  a  food.  452. 

Optimum  temperature.  The  best  temperature  for  the  performance  of 
a  certain  function.  201,  321. 

Organic.  Pertaining  to  organisms, — that  is,  to  animals  and  plants. 
Organic  matter  has  been  elaborated  or  compounded  of  inorganic 
materials,  and  exists  in  nature  only  as  it  is  made  by  animals  or 
plants.  Flesh,  wood,  starch,  protoplasm,  sugar,  are  examples. 
The  chemist  defines  organic  matter  as  that  which  contains  carbon 
in  combination  with  other  elements.  25,  256,  32. 

Ornithology.     Science  of  birds. 

Osmosis.     The  movement  of  liquids  through  membranes.     184,  185. 

Oxygen.     A  gas,  O,  comprising  about  one-fifth  of  the  atmosphere. 

Palatable.     Of  good  or  pleasant  taste.     376,  470. 

Particles  of  soil.     The  ultimate  or  finest  divisions  of  soil. 

Pedigree.     A  recorded  genealogy.     486. 

Peptone.  A  diffusible  and  soluble  compound  formed  from  nitrogenous 
substances  by  the  action  of  digestive  liquids.  389,  390. 

Perennial.  A  plant  which  lives  three  or  more  years.  Rhubarb,  apple 
trees  and  Canada  thistles  are  examples.  [143. 

Phosphate.     A    substance   containing  or  composed   of   phosphoric   acid. 

Photosynthesis.  Making  of  organic  matter  from  CO2  and  water  in  pres- 
ence of  light.  198,  199. 

Physical.  Pertaining  to  the  body  or  structure  of  a  thing,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  its  life  or  its  spirit.  Pertaining  to  the  action  of 
inorganic  forces,  as  heat,  light,  electricity,  movement  of  water. 

Physiology.  The  science  of  life-process  or  of  functioning.  It  treats  of 
organs,  and  their  work  and  uses. 

Potential.  Possible  ;  latent.  Said  of  powers  which  may  be  brought 
into  action,  but  which  are  now  dormant.  42a. 

Precipitate.     The  sediment  resulting  from  chemical  action.     390a. 

Prepotent.  Said  of  animals  which  have  the  power  of  perpetuating  their 
own  characteristics  to  a  striking  degree.  483. 

Protoplasm.  A  very  complex  and  changeable  organic  nitrogenous  com 
pound,  present  in  all  living  things,  and  necessary  to  their  existence. 
It  is  the  living  matter  of  cells. 


GLOSSARY  287 

Prottid.     Albuminoid;  organic  nitrogenous  compound.   442,  442«,  450,  451. 
Pruning.       Removing     part    of    a    plant    for    the    betterment    of    the 

remainder.    278. 

Ptomaine.     A  product  of  decomposition  of  dead  tissue.     409a. 
Ptyalin.     The  ferment  ill  saliva.     380. 
Puddling.    The  cementing  together  of  the  particles  of  soils,  rendering 

them  hard  and  stone-like.    81. 

Range.    A  pasture,  particularly  one  of  large  extent.    488. 
Kut ion.     The  material  fed  to  an  animal. 
Rennet.      The    digestive   principle    derived    from    the    fourth   or   true 

stomach  of  ruminants  :  or  the  dried  stomach  itself.     8926. 
Retentive.     Holding,  retaining. 
Reverted .     Said  of  phosphates  which  are   in  the  process  of   becoming 

insoluble.     145. 

Boot-fnp.     The  tissue  covering  the  very  tip  of  the  growing  root.     206. 
Hoot  pasturage.     The  area  of  soil  particles  exposed  to  or  amenable  to 

root  action.     53a,  90. 

Rotation.     A  systematic  alternation  of  crops.     112,  305,  305a. 
Roughage.     Forage,  330;  particularly  coarse  forage. 

Sanitation.      Looking   after  the   health,    especially  making  the  condi- 
tions such  that  disease  or  injury  is  prevented. 
Sap.     The  juice  or  liquid  contents  of  plants.     207a. 
Saturated.     Full  of  water,  so  that  it  cannot  hold  more. 
Scarify.     To  scratch  or  to  harrow  lightly. 
Secretion.     A  special  product  derived  from  the  blood  :  as  saliva,  gastric 

juice.     3(53«. 

Seed-bed.     The  earth  in  which  seeds  are  sown.     243«. 
Seedling.     A  plant  grown  from  seed,  and  not  changed  to  another  kind 

by  grafting  or  budding.     2416. 
Siliciotm.     Sandy. 
Slifi.     A  cutting. 

Soil.     That  part  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  which  plants  grow.     24. 
Soiling.     Feeding  green  fresh  forage,  in  stable  or  field. 
Sport.     A  variety  or  form  which  appears  suddenly,  or  is  very  unlike  the 

type.    485. 
Stock.     The  plant  into  which  a  cion  is  set.     236.     The  parentage  of  any 

group  or  line  of  animals  or  plants.     The  animal  tenants  of  a  farm  ; 

live-stock. 

Stomn,  xtomate.     A  breathing-pore.     188,  188a. 
Subsoil.     That  part  of    the   soil  which   lies  below  the  few  inches   of 

ameliorated   and    productive   surface   soil.      It    is   usually   harder, 

lighter  colored,  and  poorer  in  plant-food  than  the  surface  soil. 


288  GLOSSARY 

Subsoiling.    Breaking  up  the  subsoil.     97. 

Subsurface.    The  lower  part  of  the  surface  soil, — just  above  the  sub- 
soil.   250a. 

Superannuated.     Past  its  usefulness. 
Superphosphate.      Sometimes  used  to   designate  available  phosphates. 

and  sometimes  to  designate  materials  which  contain  phosphate  but 

no  potash  or  nitrogen.     143a. 

Supersaturated.     More  than  saturated,  so  that  the  water  drains  away. 
Supplementary.     Secondary  ;  used  in  addition  to  something  else. 
Swine.     Hogs,  pigs. 
Tap-root.     A  root  which  runs  straight  downwards,   with  no  very  large 

branches.    Figs.  33,  79. 

Texture.    Of  soils,  the  size  of  the  ultimate  particles. 
Tillage.    Stirring  the  soil.    81,  84a. 

Toxin.    A  poisonous  production  of  decomposition.    409a. 
Training.    Placing  or  guiding  the  brandies  of  a  plant.     278. 
Transpiration.    Passing  off  of  water  from  plants.    187. 
Trimming.     Removing   part  of  a  plant   to  improve  the  looks  or  man- 

ageableness  of  the  remainder.     278. 
Turbid.     Muddy,  cloudy. 
Under-drainage.     Drainage  from  below.     The  water  is  carried  through 

the  soil,  not  carried  off  on  the  surface.     57,  68. 
Urea.     A  waste  nitrogenous  compound  which   is  cast  out  through  the 

kidneys. 
Variation.     Modification  or  change  in  an  animal  or  plant.     The  coming 

in  of  new  forms  or  types.     Departure  from  the  normal  type. 
Viable.     Having  life;  capable  of  living  or  growing.     216. 
Vital.     Pertaining  to  life  or  living  things  :    vital   heat  is  the   heat  of 

an  animal  or  plant,  as  distinguished  from   the  heat  of  the  sun  or 

of  a  fire. 

Weed.     A  plant  which  is  not  wanted. 

Watersprout.     A  strong  and  usually  soft  shoot  arising  from  an  adven- 
titious  or  dormant   bud, — outside    the  regular  place  and   order  of 

shoots.     286. 
Water-table.     That  part  of  the  soil  marked   by  the  upper  limit  of  the 

free  or  standing  water.     57,  57«. 
Zoo/o(/i/.     Knowledge  and  science  of  animals.     17. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  READING  -  CLUBS 
AND  TO  TEACHERS 

This  book  has  found  a  place  in  reading- circles. 
The  following  suggestions  on  this  use  of  the  text 
were  made  by  request  of  the  reading- circles  of 
one  state,  and  they  are  reproduced  here  for  the 
benefit  of  others  who  may  similarly  employ  the 
book. 

In  the  production  of  its  wealth,  agriculture 
operates  in  three  great  fields, — with  the  soil,  the 
plant,  and  the  animal.  Although  aided  at  every 
point  by  a  knowledge  of  other  subjects,  its  final 
success  rests  on  these  bases,  and  these  are  the 
fields  to  which  the  Principles  of  Agriculture 
gives  most  attention. 

Agriculture  is  often  said  to  be  the  most  fun- 
damental and  most  useful  of  occupations,  since 
it  feeds  the  world.  The  province  of  a  text- book 
of  agriculture  is  to  deal  with  the  original'  pro- 
duction of  agricultural  wealth  rather  than  with 
its  manufacture,  transportation  or  sale. 

The  subject  of  agriculture  is  being  considered 
very  generally  by  schools.  This  book  is  intended 
to  supply  the  demand  for  a  broad  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  both  general  and  specific.  It 

(289) 


290  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

regards  farming  as  a  business,  to  which  science 
may  be  made  to  contribute  a  large  measure  of 
success.  It  treats  the  subject  from  the  side  of 
production,  since  it  is  not  practicable  to  confuse 
this  brief  treatment  with  a  discussion  of  social 
rural  questions. 

The  general  plan  of  the  book  is  to  state  fun- 
damental principles  in  terse  language  without 
very  much  explanation.  In  order  to  cover  so 
much  ground,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  text 
very  brief.  It  is  considered  that  the  book  should 
not  run  beyond  three  hundred  pages,  else  it 
would  be  so  large  as  to  interfere  with  its  gen- 
eral usefulness.  The  bare  statement  of  princi- 
ples is  likely  to  be  dry  and  uninteresting,  how- 
ever, and  therefore  some  incidental  and  explana- 
tory remarks  are  placed  in  small  type  at  the 
end  of  each  chapter.  Principles  themselves  never 
need  pictures  for  illustration;  but  the  applica- 
tions of  these  principles  are  often  made  plain  by 
the  use  of  engravings.  Therefore  the  engravings 
are  placed  in  the  explanatory  text  rather  than 
in  the  preliminary  statements. 

The  whole  book  is  itself  a  skeleton  or  outline 
of  the  subject.  It  is  expected  that  the  reader 
will  fill  it  in  as  he  goes  along,  by  discussion  and 
by  reading  other  books,  bulletins  and  agricultural 
papers.  Some  useful  references  will  be  found  in 
the  explanatory  matter. 


HE  VIEW    OP    THE    BOOK  291 

Spend  at  least  one  meeting  on  the  Table  of 
Contents  for  the  purpose  of  developing  a  general 
point  of  view  on  the  whole  subject  of  agriculture. 
This  book  is  made  for  adults  or  for  those  who 
are  old  enough  to  grasp  a  general  view  of  the 
subjects  included  in  agriculture.  It  is  well  to 
have  all  these  subjects  in  mind  at  the  outset,  so 
that  the  relative  importance  of  each  may  be 
known  and  understood. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  introduction  is  con- 
cerned with  a  general  statement  of  what  agri- 
culture is.  It  has  three  co-ordinate  divisions,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  analysis  on  page  ix.  The 
first  division  attempts  to  define  agriculture,  the 
second  to  discuss  the  personal  attributes  on 
which  successful  agriculture  depends,  and  the 
third  defines  the  field  of  its  endeavor.  Under 
section  1  are  to  be  found  a  definition  of  agri- 
culture, paragraphs  1,  2,  la,  2a;  what  agricul- 
ture contributes  to  the  world,  3,  3a;  what  agri- 
culture is,  4,  4a,  4b;  definitions  of  agriculture, 
5-9,  8a,  9a.  In  section  2,  it  is  explained  how 
successful  farming  depends  on  the  executive 
ability  of  the  farmer,  in  paragraphs  10-12;  how 
it  depends  on  a  knowledge  of  science,  13-20; 
how  complicated  the  business  of  agriculture  is, 
21,  21a,  216.  In  section  3,  there  is  an  outline 
of  the  things  with  which  agriculture  deals,  in 
paragraphs  22,  22a,  226. 


292  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Following  are  some  questions  that  might 
be  asked  on  this  introduction  in  order  to  bring 
out  the  various  points  involved.  These  outlines 
and  questions  may  suggest  how  all  the  chapters 
in  the  book  may  be  handled  with  some  degree 
of  satisfaction: 

1.  What  is  agriculture?  Is  it  the  same  as  farming?  As 
husbandry?  What  are  crops?  What  is  stock?  What  are  direct 
and  indirect  products  of  the  laud? 

2.  Is  marketing  a  part   of    agriculture?     Define   primary  and 
secondary  products.     Contrast  agriculture  and  manufacture. 

3.  What  does  agriculture  contribute  to  the   world?     Is  agri- 
culture the  most  important  of  all  arts? 

4.  What   is  an  ideal  husbandry?     What  is  mixed  husbandry 
and  what  specialty  husbandry?    Which  most  completely  maintains 
itself? 

5.  Define  animal  industry,  horticulture,  forestry.      What  re- 
lation do  these  bear  to  agriculture?     How  is  forestry  popularly 
misunderstood? 

6.  Is  the  farmer  a  business  man?     Why  is  executive  ability 
important?     What  is  meant  by  personality  and  how  important  is 
it  to  the  farmer?     Can  executive    ability  be  gained   wholly  from 
books? 

7.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  farm-practice?     What 
is  the  value  of  one's  own  experience? 

8.  What   are    staple  and   special   products?     How   are   prices 
made  for  these  two  classes  of  products?     Which  class  is  the  more 
important  in  the  agriculture  of  your  region? 

9.  Name  two  reasons  why  a  knowledge  of  natural  science  is 
helpful  to  the  farmer. 

10.  Discuss  the  relation  of   physics  to  agriculture.     Of  me- 
chanics.    Of  botany.     Of  zoology.    Of  chemistry.    Of  climatology. 
Of  geology.     Explain  what  you  mean  by  each  of  these  terms. 

11.  Give  some  illustration  of  how  complicated  the  business  of 
agriculture  is. 


REVIEW    OF    THE     BOOK  298 

12.  Explain  the  three  great  subjects  with  which   agriculture 
deals. 

13.  Is  agriculture  a  science  or  an  art? 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  body  of  the  book 
is  divided  into  three  co-ordinate  parts:  the  soil, 
the  plant,  the  animal.  These  represent  the  three 
great  fundamentals  on  which  the  successful  prac- 
tice of  agriculture  depends.  A  complete  treatise 
on  agriculture  would  include  a  division  that 
would  have  to  do  with  the  general  economic 
principles  that  underlie  the  business,  and  another 
on  the  social  relations;  but  the  insertion  of  this 
discussion  would  carry  the  present  volume  quite 
beyond  its  limits  of  usefulness  as  an  elementary 
text -book. 

PART    I.     THE   SOIL 

The  soil  is  considered  in  several  aspects.  It 
is  important  to  state  at  the  outset  that  the  pri- 
mary consideration  is  not  the  plant- food  alone 
in  the  soil,  but  the  physical  characteristics  as 
well.  In  the  older  books  it  was  customary  to 
place  most  of  the  stress  on  the  chemical  con- 
tent of  the  soil.  This  was  because  agricultural 
chemistry  was  the  first  of  the  natural  sciences 
to  make  great  contributions  to  the  advancement 
of  agricultural  knowledge.  It  is  now  under- 
stood that  the  physical  constitution  of  the  soil 
is  as  important  as  its  chemical  constitution;  it 


294  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

may  be  even  more  important,  since  plant- food 
can  be  added  if  the  soil  has  the  proper  physical 
make-up. 

The  soil  is  considered  in  six  general  phases: 
(1)  the  contents  of  the  soil,  as  to  what  it  is  and 
what  it  contains;  (2)  the  structure  of  the  soil; 
(3)  the  moisture  in  the  soil;  (4)  the  tillage  or 
amelioration  of  the  soil;  (5)  the  enrichment  of 
the  soil  by  means  of  farm  resources;  (6)  the 
enrichment  of  the  soil  by  means  of  commercial 
or  concentrated  materials. 


Chapter  1 

At  the  outset,  it  is  necessary  to  get  a  broad 
view  of  the  way  in  which  soils  have  come  to 
be,  and  what  the  content  of  the  soil  is.  As  soon 
the  farmer  develops  a  rational  point  of  view  on 
this  subject,  the  fields  and  hills  and  swamps 
will  have  a  new  meaning  to  him. 

What  are  the  sources  from  which  all  life  and  wealth  are  de- 
rived? Which  of  these  sources  are  beyond  the  control  of  man? 
What  is  soil?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  soil  as  contrasted 
with  land? 

Of  what  two  kinds  of  elements  is  the  soil  composed  ($2a,  27>)? 
What  is  the  physical  basis  of  the  soil?  What  is  meant  by  organic 
and  inorganic  (25«)?  What  does  the  soil  contain  besides  these 
two  classes  of  materials  (25)?  The  pupils  should  be  asked  to 
demonstrate  the  presence  of  inorganic  matter  in  any  soil  (25c). 
What  is  meant  by  weathering?  How  has  the  soil  been  formed  by 
means  of  weathering  (26)  ?  What  are  the  agencies  by  means  of 


REVIEW    OF    THE    BOOK  295 

which  weathering  proceeds?  Does  weathering  act  on  surfaces  that 
are  in  general  level  as  well  as  on  those  that  are  inclined?  Pupils 
should  bring  in  a  stone  or  brick  or  some  other  piece  of  mineral 
material  that  shows  the  effect  of  weathering.  Why  are  pebbles 
rounded?  What  has  become  of  the  particles  that  have  disappeared 
from  them?  Why  may  weathering  proceed  less  slowly  on  level 
areas  than  on  steep  hills?  Why  do  mountains  and  hills  tend  to 
become  rounded?  Why  are  some  mountain  peaks  sharp  and 
others  rounded?  After  weathering  has  proceeded,  how  are  the 
detached  particles  distributed? 

How  do  plants  become  agents  in  the  formation  of  soil?  Where 
do  lichens  grow?  How  do  roots  act  in  the  making  of  soil?  How 
do  animals  contribute  to  the  making  of  soils?  What  is  understood 
by  chemical  action  (30)?  Let  the  teacher  or  pupil  read  some  of 
the  extracts  from  Darwin's  book  on  "Vegetable  Mold,"  explaining 
how  it  is  that  the  earth-worm  contributes  to  the  formation  of  soil. 
Are  there  any  soils  in  which  organic  matter  predominates;  if  so, 
where  are  they  formed,  and  how?  What  is  humus?  How  does  it 
modify  the  texture  and  color  of  soils?  WThat  is  the  value  of  humus 
(33)  ?  How  may  the  farmer  secure  humus  for  his  land?  How  im- 
portant do  you  consider  humus  to  be  in  the  farming  of  your  neigh- 
borhood? What  isamicro-oganism?  How  do  micro-organisms  benefit 
soils  or  contribute  to  the  growth  of  plants?  Do  you  understand 
that  the  soil  is  a  scene  of  life  as  well  a  collection  of  materials? 

How  is  soil  transported  and  laid  down?  How  may  stones  be 
a  source  of  benefit  to  land?  What  are  the  chief  agencies  by  means 
of  which  soils  have  been  transported?  What  soils  partake  most 
closely  of  the  nature  of  the  bed  rock  on  which  they  lie?  Explain 
how  a  stream  becomes  a  transporter  of  soil.  What  is  muddy 
water?  Let  the  pupil  illustrate  what  there  is  in  muddy  water. 
What  are  glaciers?  What  has  been  their  effect  on  the  soil  on  a 
large  part  of  northeastern  North  America?  Determine  whether 
the  soils  of  your  region  have  been  modified  by  the  action  of 
glaciers.  What  influence  has  the  wind  in  transporting  soils? 
Illustrate  from  the  sand  storms  of  the  plains  and  deserts.  Is  there 
(lust  in  the  atmosphere?  If  so,  what  is  it  and  how  may  it  be 
detected? 


296  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Why  is  soil  useful  to  plant  life?  How  much  plant-food  may  an 
acre  of  land  contain?  What  is  available  plant- food?  What  is 
potential  plant- food?  Is  all  of  the  plant-food  in  common  soils 
available?  How  does  nature  restore  or  maintain  the  fertility  of 
soils?  How  do  man's  operations  differ  from  Nature's  in  this 
regard?  Are  all  plant-food  materials  equally  useful  to  all  plants? 
What  effect  has  deep-rooting  on  the  soil,  and  on  the  amount  of 
plant-food  that  the  plant  obtains?  Why  are  fertilizers  useful? 
What  is  the  reason  for  their  application? 

Let  the  circle  or  pupils  read  paragraph  48  in  concert. 


Chapter  2 

In  this  chapter  we  discuss  the  texture  and 
structure  of  the  soil.  We  shall  find  that  the 
condition  of  the  soil  is  as  important  as  its  com- 
position. Farmers  have  always  known  this,  but 
it  is  only  recently  that  we  have  found  out  the 
underlying  reasons  why.  The  subject  of  "soil 
physics"  has  now  come  to  be  of  first  importance. 

What  are  the  two  general  offices  of  soil  so  far  as  the  growing 
of  plants  is  concerned?  May  a  soil  that  is  rich  in  all  the  plant- 
foods  still  be  unadapted  to  the  growing  of  crops?  Why  cannot 
crops  grow  on  rock?  Why  not  on  very  hard  clay?  What  i.s  meant 
by  the  "texture"  of  the  soil?  By  the  "structure"?  What  is  the 
"physical  condition"  of  the  soil?  In  what  language  does  the 
farmer  express  a  good  physical  condition?  What  words  does  he 
use  to  express  a  poor  physical  condition? 

Name  the  reasons  why  good  structure  is  important  (52). 
Where  do  the  roots  feed?  What  relation  has  the  size  of  soil  par- 
ticles to  the  amount  of  available  plant-food?  Illustrate  this  by 
breaking  up  a  cube  of  sugar  or  a  lump  of  chalk.  Mathematically 
this  could  be  best  illustrated  by  cutting  up  a  cube  of  wax.  In 
what  way,  then,  may  the  fining  of  soil  be  said  to  increase  its  pro- 


REVIEW    OP    THE    BOOK  297 

ductivityT  What  was  Jethro  Tull's  theory  of  the  value  of  the 
fining  of  the  soil  by  means  of  tillage  (53c)  f  How  important  was 
Tull's  work,  and  why! 

In  what  general  way  may  the  structure  of  the  soil  be  improved? 
What  is  meant  by  making  the  land  "  mellow  "  ?  What  kind  of  lands 
are  mostly  improved  by  being  made  mellow?  What  kind  of  lands 
are  improved  by  being  made  compact  or  retentive?  Name  the 
three  ways  in  which  the  size  of  the  soil  particles  may  be  modified. 
What  are  the  general  uses  of  under- drainage?  May  under-drain- 
ing improve  dry  lands?  What  is  the  water  table?  How  is  it 
modified  by  under-draining?  What  is  an  amendment?  How  does 
it  improve  or  modify  the  character  of  the  soil?  What  effect  may 
lime  have  when  added  to  the  soil  aside  from  directly  furnishing 
plant- food?  Name  materials  from  which  humus  may  be  derived. 

What  are  the  values  of  stable  manures?  Does  their  value  lie 
alone  in  the  amount  of  plant-food  that  they  contain?  Illustrate 
the  value  of  good  soil  texture  by  the  practice  of  the  florist. 

Let  the  class  read  aloud  and  in  concert  paragraph  60, 


Chapter  3 

It  is  important  that  the  pupil  get  a  firm  grasp 
on  the  structure  of  this  chapter,  concerning  the 
moisture  in  the  soil.  Notice  that  it  is  divided 
into  four  co-ordinate  parts: 

(1)  Why  moisture  is  important. 

(2)  How  the  water  is  held  in  the  soil. 

(3)  How  the  moisture -holding  capacity  of  the 
soil  may  be  increased. 

(4)  The  saving  of  the  soil  moisture. 

Since  crops  oftener  fail  for  lack  of  moisture 
than  for  lack  of  plant-food,  it  is  very  important 
that  this  chapter  be  given  careful  consideration. 


298  -  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Why  is  soil  moisture  important  in  agricultural  practice?  How 
do  plants  use  water?  How  may  the  loss  of  water  from  the  plant 
be  shown?  What  is  irrigation?  Under  what  conditions  is  irriga- 
tion admissible  (63a)?  In  what  part  of  the  country  is  it  a  gen- 
eral practice,  and  in  what  part  a  special  practice? 

In  what  forms  may  water  be  held  in  the  soil?  Explain  each  of 
these  three  methods  (65,  66,  67).  Make  an  experiment  to  show 
the  capillary  power  of  the  soil.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "film 
moisture?"  In  what  condition  is  the  water  held  in  very  wet  soils? 
When  lands  are  in  proper  condition  for  the  growing  of  crops,  is 
the  soil  wet  or  is  it  moist?  Illustrate  film  moisture  by  dipping  a 
marble  or  a  stone  in  water.  Illustrate  capillarity  by  applying 
one  corner  of  a  lump  of  sugar  to  water.  Illustrate  the  transfer  of 
water  from  particle  to  particle  by  placing  several  lumps  of  sugar 
together  and  applying  water  to  one  of  them.  Where  is  the  free 
water  of  the  soil?  What  is  meant  by  a  "leachy"  soil?  In  what 
soils  and  under  what  conditions  does  water  run  off  the  surfo.ee? 
Does  this  wash  of  water  from  the  surface  do  any  harm  aside  from 
the  loss  of  the  water  itself? 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  "rainfall?"  How  may  the  soil  be 
made  to  hold  the  rainfall?  How  may  surface  washing  be  pre- 
vented? How  do  soils  vary  in  their  capacity  to  hold  water? 
Make  an  experiment  to  illustrate  the  capacity  of  the  different 
soils  to  hold  moisture  (72o).  How  does  the  humus  content  of  the 
soil  affect  its  moisture-holding  capacity?  How  important  is 
humus  in  the  agriculture  of  your  region?  Is  there  sufficient  rain- 
fall in  this  region  to  carry  the  crops  through  the  season  without 
resorting  to  irrigation? 

How  is  the  humus  in  the  soil  depleted?  State  one  reason  why 
newly  broken  or  newly  cleared  lands  give  the  best  crops.  How 
may  the  humus  be  gradually  increased?  Is  it  possible  to  put  too 
much  humus  in  the  land?  The  pupil  should  be  instructed  in  the 
effect  of  humus  in  different  kinds  of  soils.  Soils  that  are  already 
rich  in  humus  may  be  injured  rather  than  benefited  by  the  appli- 
cation of  more,  whereas  those  that  are  lacking  in  humus  or  are 
very  hard,  or  very  loose  and  sandy,  maybe  greatly  benefited.  In 
many  of  the  loess  soils  of  the  middle  West  the  addition  of  much 


REVIEW    OF    THE     BOOK  299 

humus  may  be  a  decided  disadvantage.  Call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  in  very  windy  regions  the  soil  may  be  made  so  loose  and 
open  and  fine  as  to  be  exposed  to  much  damage  by  winds.  In 
new  countries  humus  may  be  more  abundant  than  in  old  lands: 
why?  Are  the  lands  in  your  neighborhood  in  need  of  humus? 
Illustrate  when  green-crops  should  be  plowed  under  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  the  best  results.  What  is  the  danger  of  plowing 
them  under  too  late  in  the  season  (74«^f 

Explain  what  drainage  is.  What  is  surface  drainage  and 
under-drainape?  How  may  surface  drains  be  constructed  so  as 
to  interfere  least  with  agricultural  operations?  What  effect  has 
tinder-drainage  on  the  soil?  What  effect  does  a  warm  shower  in 
spring  have  on  land  that  is  perfectly  drained?  What  effect  does 
a  cool  summer  shower  have?  Explain  some  of  the  practices  of 
tile  draining,  as  to  depth  of  drain,  distance  apart  of  the  different 
drains  (76a,  76b).  What  relation  does  under-drainage  have  to 
tap-rooted  plants  (78«)?  What  is  meant  by  the  "soil  reservoir?" 

How  does  tillage  enable  the  soil  to  hold  moisture?  How  does 
increasing  the  capillarity  increase  the  moisture-holding  capacity? 
What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  movement  of  moisture  by 
means  of  capillary  attraction?  May  soil  be  made  too  fine?  What 
is  meant  by  "puddling"  of  soils? 

What  is  meant  by  the  "conservation  of  moisture?"  How  does 
moisture  escape  from  the  land?  What  is  meant  by  the  "surface 
mulch"  or  the  "soil-mulch?"  About  how  much  water  is  required 
to  produce  a  pound  of  dry  matter  (81ft)?  How  does  tillage  save 
the  moisture? 

Explain  fl)  the  general  direction  of  movement  of  soil  water 
in  the  growing  season;  (2)  how  the  moisture-holding  capacity  of 
the  soil  may  be  increased;  (3)  how  surface  evaporation  may  be 
lessened. 

Chapter  4 

The  tillage  of  the  soil  may  now  be  con- 
sidered, for  we  have  learned  how  important 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is,  and  also 


300  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

how  necessary  the  moisture  is  and  how  it  may 
be  caught  and  saved.  In  common  speech,  the 
word  cultivation  is  used  for  the  stirring  of  the 
soil;  but  it  is  better  to  use  the  word  tillage, 
since  this  is  a  specific  technical  word  with  no 
other  meaning. 

The  present  chapter  has  three  co-ordinate 
parts:  (1)  what  tillage  is;  (2)  what  tillage  does; 
(3)  how  tillage  is  performed. 

Explain  what  you  mean  by  the  word  tillage.  Why  is  tillage 
performed?  Distinguish  the  two  kinds  of  tillage  (85).  Under 
what  conditions  are  these  kinds  practiced?  What  is  meant  by 
deep  and  shallow  tillage?  By  surface  tillage? 

Note  that  tillage  improves  the  land  in  three  general  ways. 
(Read  the  first  clause  in  the  paragraphs  87,  88,  £9.)  How  does 
tillage  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil?  What  in- 
fluence has  it  in  saving  moisture?  What  influence  has  it  on  the 
chemical  actions  taking  place  in  the  soil?  Of  what  importance  is 
air  to  the  soil  (89a)?  In  what  sense  is  it  true  that  "tillage  is 
manure"? 

Note  that  there  are  three  general  ways  of  performing  tillage 
with  respect  to  the  kinds  of  tools  that  are  used.  What  are  they 
(§3a,  3b,  3c)?  Give  seven  reasons  why  we  plow.  Explain  how 
plowing  pulverizes  the  soil;  the  relation  it  has  to  green-manur- 
ing; how  it  increases  the  depth  of  the  soil;  what  relation  it  has 
to  hard-pan  or  subsoil;  how  it  modifies  the  temperature  and 
moisture  of  the  soil ;  what  relation  it  has  to  weathering.  Explain 
what  subsoiling  is  and  what  it  does.  Define  the  words  furrow 
and  furrow-slice  (91a).  Describe  what  might  be  considered  to 
be  an  ideal  general-purpose  plow. 

Name  the  important  surface-working  tools.  Give  five  im- 
portant influences  that  surface-working  has  on  the  soil.  What  is 
meant  by  the  "earth -mulch?"  What  is  it  for?  How  deep  should 
it  be?  How  is  it  made?  How  may  it  be  destroyed?  How  is  it 
repaired?  How  often  should  it  be  repaired?  If  the  earth-mulch 


REVIEW    OF    THE     BOOK  301 

itself  is  very  dry,  may  it  still  be  of  use?  At  what  time  of  the 
year  is  earth-mulch  most  useful?  What  relation  has  surface 
tillage  to  weeds?  Why  do  we  till? 

Name  tools  that  have  a  compacting  influence  on  soils.  Name 
some  important  uses  of  the  compacting  of  the  soil.  What  is  the 
benefit  of  rolling  the  land?  What  are  the  disadvantages?  What 
relation  has  the  rolling  to  germination  of  seeds?  What  relation 
to  soil  moisture?  Does  the  rolling  of  the  land  require  much 
judgment?  Why? 

Chapters  5  and  6 

We  now  consider  the  enriching  of  the  soil. 
We  have  found  that  the  soil  is  made  to  be  more 
productive  by  thorough  preparation  and  by  sub- 
sequent tillage.  The  plants  are  enabled  to  lay 
hold  of  the  stores  of  plant -food,  and  many 
chemical  activities  are  set  up  that  result  in 
rendering  plant -food  more  available.  The  plant 
is  given  a  comfortable  and  congenial  place  in 
which  to  grow.  It  thrives.  We  have  found 
that  the  physical  structure  or  condition  of  the 
soil  is  of  primary  importance.  When  we  have 
secured  the  best  physical  condition  and  have 
done  our  best  with  tillage,  we  may  then  think 
of  adding  extraneous  materials  to  the  soil  for 
the  purpose  of  enriching  it.  That  is,  we  manure 
or  fertilize  the  land.  Whether  this  fertilizing 
pays  or  not,  depends  wholly  on  conditions.  The 
addition  of  mere  plant-food  is  rarely  profitable 
unless  the  land  is  first  in  condition  for  the  very 
best  growing  of  the  plant. 


302  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

Manures  are  of  two  general  characters;  those 
that  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  those 
that  add  plant-food.  Barn  manures  usually  per- 
form both  offices,  and  this  is  one  reason  why 
they  give  excellent  results. 

As  a  matter  of  farm -practice,  we  may  divide 
all  fertilizers  or  manurial  substances  in  two  great 
classes:  those  that  are  produced  on  the  farm, 
and  those  that  are  bought  from  the  market. 
The  best  agriculture  is  that  which  aims  to  pro- 
duce a  good  part  of  the  necessary  fertilizing 
materials  on  the  farm  itself.  These  materials 
are  by-products  (see  definition  in  glossary). 

In  Chapter  V  we  discuss  three  general  cate- 
gories: (1)  what  these  farm  manures  are,  (2) 
the  enriching  of  soil  by  means  of  crops  that  are 
plowed  under,  (3)  direct  application  of  farm 
manures  to  the  land. 

The  following  questions  will  tend  to  bring  out 
the  various  points  in  the  chapter: 

What  is  the  real  fertility  of  the  land?  Has  it  to  do  alone  with 
plant- food?  What  is  the  first  step  toward  increasing  the  produc- 
tiveness of  any  soil?  What  are  the  means  by  which  this  step  may 
be  taken?  What  is  humus  (review  paragraph  33)  ?  How  is  humus 
secured? 

What  are  green-manures?  How  much  of  the  weight  of  a 
clover  crop  may  be  left  in  the  ground  (108a)?  Name  the  three 
classes  of  green-manure  crops,  and  explain  them.  How  may 
green-manuring  crops  be  classified,  with  reference  to  their  nitro- 
gen-gathering power?  Name  some  of  the  nitrogen-gatherers. 
To  what  family  of  plants  do  they  belong?  Name  some  of  the 


REVIEW    OF    THE    BOOK  303 

nitrogen-consumers,  or  those  that  do  not  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil. 
Do  they  belong  to  any  one  group  or  family  of  plants!  Name  the 
three  great  staple  green-manure  crops  of  the  nitrogen-gathering 
class  (111).  What  is  meant  by  intensive  farming  (Ilia) ?  What 
by  extensive  farming  (1116)? 

What  is  the  ideal  method  of  securing  the  green-manuring 
crop  in  general  agriculture  (112)?  Can  a  regular  rotation  be 
practiced  in  most  kinds  of  intensive  farming?  Why  is  land  bene- 
fited by  being  "rested"  in  clover  or  some  other  crop?  Explain 
how  land  may  be  benefited  sometimes  even  by  "resting"  in 
weeds.  What  are  the  two  values  of  green-manure  crops  (114)? 
Is  it  true  that  green -manures  may  be  valuable  even  when  more 
plant-food  is  not  needed?  Apply  this  to  fruit-growing  crops. 
How  may  a  system  of  green-manure  cropping  be  inaugurated  on 
hard  and  poor  lands?  Where  are  cover-crops  most  useful,  and 
why?  How  early  should  the  cover-crop  in  orchards  be  plowed 
under?  May  weeds  ever  be  useful  in  orchards  late  in  the  season? 
Why  should  they  not  be  allowed  to  grow  early  in  the  season? 
What  are  the  disadvantages  of  allowing  weeds  to  grow  even  late 
in  the  season? 

What  does  the  application  of  stable  manure  do  for  the  land? 
Upon  what  does  its  value  depend  (119)?  How  should  stable 
manures  be  protected  or  stored?  Explain  what  you  understand  by 
a  covered  barnyard  (120rt).  How  are  stable  manures  affected  by 
exposure  to  the  weather?  What  is  the  value  of  thoroughly  rotted 
manure?  What  is  the  philosophy  of  composting  manures?  When 
the  manures  cannot  be  sheltered  or  protected,  what  disposition 
may  be  made  of  them?  What  precautions? 

What  is  the  value  of  muck?  What  is  peat,  and  what  is  its 
value?  Discuss  marl;  also  sawdust,  straw,  leaves,  pomace,  and 
the  like.  Under  what  conditions  do  you  think  it  would  pay  to 
plow  under  straw? 

In  Chapter  VI  the  general  discussion  of  fer- 
tilizer substances  is  continued,  but  in  this  case 
the  subject  is  commercial  plant-foods.  This  is 
a  subject  of  very  great  importance,  particularly 


304  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

in  the  older  states,  and  it  will  be  of  increasing 
importance  as  the  country  grows  older.  It  is  a 
technical  subject,  for  the  complete  understanding 
of  which  much  chemical  knowledge  is  needed. 
Persons  who  desire  to  study  the  subject  in  detail 
should  consult  special  works  and  bulletins. 
However,  the  general  philosophy  of  the  applica- 
tion of  commercial  plant -foods  may  be  under- 
stood from  this  brief  chapter. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  chapter  has  six 
coordinate  parts:  (1)  what  the  elements  of  plant- 
food  are  in  the  soil,  and  which  ones  are  most 
likely  to  be  exhausted;  (2)  the  nitrogen  supply; 
(3)  phosphoric  acid  supply;  (4)  potash;  (5) 
amendments,  or  those  substances  that  act  bene- 
ficially on  the  structure  or  physical  condition  of 
the  soil;  (6)  discussion  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

What  is  a  chemically  fertile  soil?  What  is  an  element  ( l'27a)  1 
How  many  elements  are  supposed  to  be  necessary  to  the  plants 
(127;  pages  115-117)?  Which  of  these  elements  are  most  likely  to 
be  depleted  by  the  growing  of  crops?  In  order  that  these  elements 
may  be  useful  to  the  plants,  what  must  be  their  relation  to  water? 
Do  plants  use  these  elements  in  their  original  or  uncombined 
forms?  What  is  meant  by  a  compound  in  the  chemical  sense 
(130a)?  What  is  meant  by  "available"  plant-food?  Does  the 
soil  contain  much  unavailable  food  of  the  elements  that  plants 
need?  What  makes  plant-food  available?  What  is  the  influence 
of  tillage  in  this  respect?  Do  roots  themselves  make  plant-foods 
available  (131o,  review  also  paragraphs  30  and  30a)?  What  are 
the  disadvantages  in  the  use  of  barn  manures? 

What  is  the  office  of  nitrogen?  How  does  it  affect  the  plant? 
How  may  the  lack  of  nitrogen  be  discovered?  Explain  what 


REVIEW    OF    THE    BOOK  305 

nitrogen  is  and  what  its  sources  are.  What  is  ammonia?  Nitric 
acid?  Nitrate?  What  is  the  relation  of  humus  to  nitrogen?  What 
is  nitrification?  How  is  it  brought  about?  Is  the  nitrogen  of  the 
atmosphere  used  by  plants?  If  so,  through  what  parts  of  the 
plants  is  it  taken  up?  How  may  we  add  commercial  nitrogen 
to  the  soil? 

What  is  the  chief  office  of  phosphoric  acid?  What  crops  use 
liberally  of  it?  What  are  sources  of  phosphoric  acid?  What  is 
meant  by  the  term  phosphate?  What  is  an  acid  phosphate? 
Superphosphate  (143aj?  Explain  the  relationships  of  phosphoric 
acid  to  lime.  What  is  a  "reverted"  phosphate?  In  what  forms 
are  the  phosphates  found  in  commercial  fertilizers? 

What  is  the  office  of  potash?  What  are  the  sources  of  supply? 
Whence  came  the  commercial  potash  salts?  Explain  what 
muriate  and  sulfate  of  potash  are. 

What  is  an  amendment?  Give  examples.  How  does  an 
amendment  affect  the  soil?  What  effect  may  lime  have  on  landf 
In  what  form  may  it  be  applied?  What  do  you  understand  by  an 
acid?  Alkali?  How  many  substances  may  be  tested  with  regard 
to  acidity  or  alkalinity  (153a1?  Make  the  test  with  vinegar  and 
with  lye. 

What  is  a  commercial  fertilizer?  What  is  meant  by  a  "com- 
plete" fertilizer?  What  is  meant  by  "guaranteed  analysis?" 
What  is  meant  by  the  "brand?"  What  are  the  relative  com- 
mercial values  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash?  Figure 
out  the  commercial  or  estimated  value  of  a  ton  of  commercial 
fertilizer  when  the  guaranteed  analysis  is  given.  How  may  you 
determine  what  is  the  value  of  commercial  fertilizer? 

Would  you  advise  using  a  complete  fertilizer,  or  only  one  of 
the  fertilizing  elements?  Explain  under  what  conditions.  In 
what  kind  of  crops  is  nitrogen  chiefly  needed?  Is  there  danger  of 
losing  nitrogen  from  the  soil?  Do  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
tend  to  leach  out  as  rapidly  as  nitrogen?  In  what  soils  is  leach- 
ing least  pronounced?  When  are  fertilizers  applied,  before  or 
after  fitting  the  land?  Explain  the  six  conditions  that  govprn 
the  application  of  commercial  fertilizers  dfiS1.  Can  definite  rules 
be  given  for  the  application  of  such  fertilizers?  Why? 


306  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

PART  II.— THE  PLANT  AND  CROPS 

We  have  now  completed  a  general  review  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  soil,  the  means  of  im- 
proving its  condition  and  of  adding  to  its  rich- 
ness. We  now  come  to  the  second  of  our  great 
subjects — the  growing  of  plants.  The  growing  of 
many  plants  together  results  in  the  securing  of 
a  crop.  Ordinarily  the  general  farmer  considers 
the  crop  rather  than  the  individual  plant,  whereas 
the  gardener  considers  individual  plants  rather 
than  crops.  That  is,  the  gardener  gives  each 
plant  special  care.  He  often  grows  the  plant  in 
a  pot  and  every  vacancy  is  noticed.  The  gar- 
dener, therefore,  is  likely  to  secure  greater  results 
from  each  plant  than  the  general  farmer  is. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  Part  II  is  laid  out  in 
six  chapters:  (vn)  what  the  offices  of  the  plant 
are  to  the  agriculturist ;  (vm)  how  the  plant 
lives  and  grows;  (ix)  how  plants  may  be  prop- 
agated; (x)  how  land  may  be  prepared  in  order 
to  receive  the  seed;  (xi)  how  a  plant  is  cared 
for  after  it  has  germinated ;  (xn)  a  discussion 
of  a  few  fundamental  crops,  as  pasturage,  mea- 
dow, and  forage. 

Chapter  7 

The  following  questions  will  elucidate  the 
range  of  the  offices  of  the  plant.  Note  that  the 


REVIEW    OP    THE     BOOK 

chapter  is  divided  into  five  coordinate  heads,  dis- 
cussing the  plant  and  the  crop  in  its  general 
agricultural  bearings;  the  plant  in  its  relation 
to  the  soil;  the  plant  in  its  relation  to  climate; 
the  plant  in  relation  to  animal  life;  and  the  plant 
in  relation  to  man. 

Name  the  general  offices  of  the  plant,  as  indicated  in  para- 
graph 167.  What  is  meant  by  "crop"?  Name  a  dozen  crops. 
For  what  purpose  may  crops  be  grown? 

How  does  the  plant  influence  or  modify  the  soil?  How  does 
it  supply  humus?  How  does  it  protect  the  soil?  What  value  may 
a  tap-root  have  (170a)?  How  may  plants  be  utilized  to  prevent 
drifting  of  sands  and  other  loose  lands? 

Name  four  ways  in  which  the  plan  influences  the  supply  of 
moisture.  How  does  it  render  the  surface  of  the  earth  more 
inhabitable  and  enjoyable?  What  influence  have  forests  on  rain- 
fall (172a)? 

What  is  the  relation  of  plants  to  animals?  Can  it  be  said 
that  "all  flesh  is  grass?"  What  is  the  "round  of  life?"  Let  the 
class  read  aloud  and  in  concert  paragraph  175. 

Name  some  of  the  direct  uses  of  plants  to  man.  What  are 
staple  products?  What  are  semi-staples?  What  are  luxuries  or 
accessories?  What  are  condiments?  What  are  beverages?  What 
classes  of  plant  products  contribute  to  the  food  of  animals?  How 
are  plants  or  their  products  used  in  the  arts  or  manufactures? 
How  are  plants  useful  as  objects  of  ornament?  In  what  ways  do 
they  gratify  our  esthetic  tastes  and  sentiments?  What  is  flori- 
culture? Landscape  horticulture? 

Chapter  8 

This  chapter,  on  how  the  plant  lives,  is  in- 
tended to  give  an  outline  of  some  of  the  most 
important  activities  of  plants.  If  the  reader 


308  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

wants  a  completer  account  of  these  matters  he 
should  consult  botanical  text- books.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  chapter  divides  into  four  co- 
ordinate heads:  (1)  what  the  plant  activities  are; 
(2)  the  factors  or  agencies  of  growth;  (3)  the 
processes  of  growth;  (4)  irritability,  or  move- 
ment in  plants. 

What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  that  the  plant  is  a  "dependent 
structure?"  With  what  must  the  plant  be  supplied  in  order  that 
it  shall  live  and  grow?  What  is  meant  by  the  sensitiveness  or 
irritability  of  a  plant? 

Upon  what  does  the  stiffness  or  rigidness  of  a  succulent  plant 
depend?  Why  does  such  a  shoot  wilt  when  it  is  severed  from  the 
plant?  What  is  meant  by  the  turgidity  of  the  cells?  How  does 
the  soil- water  pass  from  cell  to  cell?  Explain  or  illustrate  tur- 
gidity (184a).  What  are  root-hairs,  and  what  is  their  office? 
How  is  it  that  these  root-hairs  absorb  the  soil  water?  What  does 
the  soil-water  contain?  The  pupil  should  actually  see  and  examine 
root-hairs.  Compare  185&  and  figures  35-37.  How  much  water 
do  plants  contain?  Do  plants  absorb  more  water  than  they  need 
for  purposes  of  food?  If  so,  what  becomes  of  the  surplus?  What 
are  stomata?  What  is  their  action?  Illustrate  transpiration  (see 
figures  40  and  10).  What  is  root  pressure?  Through  what  part 
of  the  plant  does  the  soil  water  ascend?  How  may  the  path  of 
ascent  be  traced  (1896)? 

What  is  absorbed  with  the  soil-water?  To  what  part  of  the 
plant  does  this  soil-water,  with  its  contents,  go?  Does  the  plant 
absorb  only  those  substances  that  are  use  in  building  up  its  tissue? 
How  may  soil  substances  that  are  not  in  solution  be  brought  into 
that  condition?  Name  some  of  the  leading  substances  that  are 
brought  in  with  the  soil -water,  particularly  those  that  are  of 
primary  interest  to  the  farmer?  What  is  meant  by  the  "ash"? 
What  does  the  ash  contain?  Do  all  the  ash  ingredients  come  from 
the  soil?  Do  any  of  the  non-ash  ingredients  come  from  the 
soil? 


REVIEW     OF    THE     BOOK  309 

Where  does  the  plant  secure  its  oxygen?  What  is  meant  by 
respiration  in  plants?  How  is  it  compared  with  respiration  in 
animals?  When  does  respiration  chiefly  take  place?  How  may 
respiration  be  demonstrated  (194a)?  How  else  is  oxygen  secured 
than  through  the  aerial  parts?  Do  roots  need  air?  Why? 

What  element  is  most  abundant  in  plants?  Whence  is  it  de- 
rived? How  does  it  become  plant-food?  Define  photosynthesis. 
Compare  it  with  respiration.  What  is  assimilation  (198a)?  What 
is  chlorophyl  (1986)?  What  is  plant-food  (198c)?  In  what  sense 
may  it  be  said  that  plants  "purify  the  air?" 

How  does  heat  affect  plants?  What  degree  of  heat  is  necessary 
for  certain  activities?  In  what  parts  of  the  world  do  green  or 
succulent  plant  tissues  most  abound?  Are  all  plants  equally 
affected  by  similar  temperature? 

What  substance  results  from  photosynthesis?  What  becomes 
of  it?  Illustrate  how  starch  may  be  detected  (203&)?  What  are 
the  internal  and  external  evidences  of  growth?  Note  that  when  a 
plant  ceases  to  grow  it  begins  to  die.  In  what  parts  do  young 
stems  elongate?  How  does  the  root  behave  in  this  respect?  How 
may  these  differences  be  shown?  How  is  increase  in  diameter 
effected?  Why  does  the  external  bark  become  furrowed  and  crack 
and  break  away?  What  is  meant  by  the  word  "sap"  (207a)? 

How  is  irritability  expressed?  Name  some  visible  move- 
ments of  plants.  How  do  plants  move  with  reference  to  light? 
With  reference  to  gravitation?  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase 
"reaction  of  plants  to  their  environment"? 

Chapter  9 

We  now  discuss  the  propagation  of  plants. 
Note  that  the  chapter  is  divided  into  three  co- 
ordinate parts:  (1)  a  discussion  of  the  general 
means  by  which  plants  are  propagated;  (2)  prop- 
agation by  means  of  seeds;  (3)  propagation  by 
means  of  buds. 


310  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

What  are  the  two  great  classes  of  methods  by  means  of  which 
plants  are  propagated?  What  three  objects  has  the  farmer  in 
mind  when  he  propagates  plants?  What  do  you  understand  by 
the  term  "propagation"  as  applied  to  plants?  Why  are  not  seeds 
always  employed  as  a  means  of  propagation?  What  is  meant  by 
the  term  "to  come  true  to  seed?"  Explain  why  it  is  that  plants 
that  are  habitually  propagated  by  buds  usually  do  not  come  true 
from  seeds  (215a). 

What  are  four  general  requisites  or  proper  conditions  for  the 
germination  of  seed?  What  is  meant  by  the  "vitality"  of  seeds? 
How  do  seeds  vary  in  vitality,  and  why?  What  is  a  "seed-bed?" 
In  what  condition  should  it  be?  What  caution  is  suggested  for  the 
handling  of  old  and  weak  seeds?  What  is  the  reason  for  the 
soaking  of  seeds?  How  is  oxygen  applied  to  germinate  seeds? 
How  may  this  supply  be  increased  in  a  simple  experimental  way? 
What  is  meant  by  the  proper  temperature  for  the  germination  of 
seeds?  Give  examples  of  temperatures  that  are  best  for  certain 
kinds. 

What  is  the  ideal  soil  for  a  seed-bed,  and  why?  How  is  the 
depth  of  planting  modified  by  the  kind  of  soil?  Why  is  the  earth 
packed  about  seeds?  What  caution  is  given  respecting  the  cover- 
ing of  very  small  seeds?  What  is  meant  by  "re -germinating?" 
How  are  very  hard  and  bony  seeds  sometimes  treated?  What  do 
you  understand  by  the  term  "stratification?" 

What  do  you  understand  by  the  phrase  "propagation  by  means 
of  buds"?  Under  what  circumstances  are  plants  propagated  by 
means  of  buds?  What  are  the  two  general  types  of  propagation 
by  buds? 

Explain  what  a  layer  is.  Bring  a  shoot  into  the  schoolroom 
and  show  how  layering  is  performed,  or  make  a  layer  from  some 
bush  or  tree  nearby.  What  plants  are  propagated  by  means  of 
layers?  When  are  the  layers  separated  from  the  parent  plants? 
When  may  the  operation  be  performed? 

What  are  the  two  kinds  of  propagation  by  means  of  detached 
or  separated  buds?  What  is  a  cutting?  A  slip?  A  graft?  Tell 
what  softwood  or  greenwood  cuttings  are,  and  explain  how  they 
are  made  and  handled.  What  are  hardwood  and  dormant  cut- 


REVIEW    OF    THE     BOOK  311 

tings f  How  made  and  how  handled?  Name  plants  that  are 
propagated  by  means  of  softwood  cuttings  and  hardwood  cuttings. 
What  is  a  "single  eye"  cutting,  and  how  planted? 

What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  grafting  ?  Cion  ? 
Stock  f  What  is  meant  by  the  word  "bud"  as  used  by  grafters  or 
budders?  Why  do  the  cion  and  stock  unite?  Why  is  it  necessary 
to  bind  up  the  wounds  or  to  cover  them  with  wax?  Explain  the 
operation  of  cleft- grafting.  Of  shield-budding.  Under  what 
circumstances  and  on  what  plants  are  these  methods  commonly 
used?  Of  what  age  of  wood  is  the  cion  usually  made?  When  is 
grafting  performed?  Budding?  How  are  plants  made  to  be  dwarf 
by  means  of  grafting  or  budding  12416ft)? 


Chapter  10 

The  preparation  of  the  land  for  seed  will  now 
be  considered.  Having  learned  how  plants  are 
propagated  by  the  gardener,  we  may  take  a 
broader  view  of  the  subject,  and  see  how  they 
are  started  in  the  fields  of  the  farmer.  We  shall 
now  have  to  do  with  (1)  the  general  factors  that 
determine  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed;  (2) 
the  demands  made  by  the  plants  on  the  soil;  (3) 
the  actual  making  of  the  seed-bed;  (4)  the  ap- 
plication of  the  foregoing  principles  to  such 
fundamental  crops  as  wheat,  Indian  corn  and 
potatoes. 

What  is  said  about  the  loss  from  faulty  preparation  of  land  ? 
Why  is  it  so  very  important  that  the  farmer  should  know  what  the 
ideal  seed-bed  should  be?  What  is  a  seed-bed,  as  used  in  its 
agricultural  sense  (243a)?  What  are  the  two  factors  that  govern 
the  preparation  of  the  land  for  the  seed-bed? 

Do  fine  seeds  demand  a  different  kind  of  seed-bed  from  very 


312  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

large  seeds  or  from  cuttings  of  potatoes?  Why?  How  may  plants 
change  their  root  system  to  adapt  themselves  to  different  kinds  of 
seed-beds?  How  is  the  seed  provided  with  food  to  start  it  off  before 
it  can  secure  a  foothold  on  the  soil?  Explain  the  different  char- 
acter of  seed-bed  demanded  by  clover  and  sugar  beets.  From 
what  part  of  the  soil  do  most  of  the  farm  plants  derive  their 
nourishment?  How  does  a  well  prepared  seed-bed  conduce  to  the 
earliness  of  the  crop?  How  do  plants  differ  in  regard  to  the 
character  of  seed-bed  that  they  require  (Explain  by  contrasting 
winter  wheat  and  Indian  corn)? 

Explain  the  importance  of  moisture  to  the  germination  of 
seeds.  What  kind  of  seed-bed  is  best  for  the  preservation  of  soil 
moisture?  Eeview  the  remarks  on  the  earth-mulch  in  Chapters 
III  and  IV,  and  make  an  application  to  the  present  discussion. 
What  is  meant  by  the  "subsoil,"  "surface  soil,"  and  "sub-surface" 
soil?  What  is  the  value  of  rolling  the  seed-bed?  Explain  why 
the  seed-bed  should  contain  no  free  water.  If  it  is  desired  to 
plant  seeds  unusually  early,  what  must  be  the  preparation  of  the 
seed-bed, — that  is,  how  may  the  soil  be  warmed  up?  What 
effect  has  under-drainage  on  the  germination  of  seeds  (251a)? 
What  can  you  say  about  soils  that  tend  to  bake?  What  is  the 
advantage  of  sowing  seeds  very  early?  Do  all  seeds  that  germinate 
make  good  plants?  Are  those  that  fail  to  make  good  plants 
necessarily  a  total  loss  to  the  farmer?  Under  what  conditions  are 
seeds  sown  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  without  the  actual  prepara- 
tion of  a  seed-bed?  What  cautions  are  given  respecting  the 
making  of  seed-beds  on  clay  lands?  Why  is  summer-fallowing 
practiced  as  a  preparation  for  wheat  growing  (2556)? 

Discuss  the  seed-bed  that  is  best  for  winter  wheat.  Under 
what  system  of  tillage  may  this  seed-bed  best  be  secured?  What 
effect  does  this  seed-bed  have  on  the  root  system  of  the  wheat 
plant?  Why  is  it  best  that  wheat  roots  should  not  go  directly 
downwards  deep  into  the  soil?  Is  it  probable  that  the  root  system 
of  the  wheat  plant  tends  to  change  somewhat  as  spring  advances? 

What  is  the  ideal  seed-bed  for  maize  or  Indian  corn?  How 
does  it  differ  from  that  of  wheat?  What  are  the  best  machines 
for  planting  corn?  When  may  the  young  corn  be  tilled? 


REVIEW    OF    THE     BOOK  313 

What  is  the  proper  seed-bed  for  potatoes?  Should  they  be 
planted  deep  or  shallow?  Should  they  be  grown  in  level  culture 
or  on  ridges? 

Chapter  11 

Having  now  discussed  the  preparation  of  the 
seed-bed  and  the  starting  of  the  crop,  we  may 
give  attention  to  some  of  the  principles  that 
underlie  the  subsequent  care  of  the  plant.  This 
care  falls  under  three  general  categories:  (1)  the 
care  given  by  means  of  tillage;  (2)  the  care 
given  by  means  of  pruning  and  training;  (3)  the 
care  given  by  keeping  insects  and  fungi  and 
other  enemies  in  check. 

WThat  is  the  first  consideration  in  the  care  of  the  plant? 
What  are  the  objects  of  tillage?  What  can  you  say  about  weeds? 
Name  some  of  the  general  means  of  keeping  weeds  in  check. 
How  often  should  surface  tillage  be  given?  Is  it  ever  practicable 
to  till  sowed  crops?  How  late  may  it  be  advisable  to  till  corn  by 
means  of  harrows? 

Is  tillage  advisable  in  fruit  plantations?  Why  is  it  that  fruit 
plantations  may  do  better  without  tillage  than  corn  or  potatoes 
do?  Why  is  it  very  important  to  till  fruit  plantations  early  in 
life?  May  the  orchard  need  clean  tillage  throughout  its  whole 
life?  May  sod  ever  be  employed  in  an  orchard  to  advantage? 
Should  fruit  plantations  be  tilled  uniformly  throughout  the  entire 
season?  Explain  a  good  general  method  for  the  tillage  of  fruit 
lands. 

What  is  pruning?  Training?  Is  pruning  unnatural?  Explain 
by  reference  to  a  tree  top  what  is  meant  by  the  phrase  "struggle 
for  existence." 

Explain  how  wounds  heal.  What  are  some  of  the  factors  that 
determine  the  proper  healing  of  wounds?  How  does  the  season 
of  the  year  in  which  they  are  made  influence  the  healing?  What 


314  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

should  be  the  length  and  form  of  stub  or  stump  when  a  large  limb 
is  cut  away?     What  is  the  value  of  dressings  on  wounds?     Men 
tion  one  or  two  good  dressings. 

Explain  why  we  prune.  What  is  the  result  of  heavy  pruning 
of  the  top?  Heavy  pruning  of  roots?  What  are  watersprouts? 
What  influence  has  the  checking  of  growth?  How  may  this 
checking  of  growth  be  brought  about?  What  is  the  philosophy 
of  heading-in  young  shoots?  Explain  the  effects  of  pruning  every 
year  versus  heavy  pruning  in  occasional  years. 

What  are  the  leading  kinds  of  enemies  of  plants?  Explain 
the  two  general  types  of  insects  with  reference  to  their  methods 
of  feeding.  Give  illustrations  in  each.  What  are  some  of  the 
classes  of  fungous  pests  with  reference  to  their  manner  of  living? 
What  is  meant  by  physiological  or  constitutional  troubles?  How 
are  these  troubles  to  be  distinguished?  What  is  a  fungus  (292a)? 
What  is  a  host  (2926)? 

What  are  the  first  requisites  to  keeping  plants  free  of  insects 
and  fungi?  What  is  meant  by  prophylaxis  (294a)?  Name  the 
three  general  ways  in  which  insects  are  killed.  What  are  the 
caustic  applications?  Discuss  the  poisonous  applications.  What 
classes  of  materials  are  used  as  fungicides!  What  is  Bordeaux 
mixture?  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "spraying?"  Explain  how 
spraying  should  be  performed.  How  are  you  to  determine  what 
is  the  best  spray  pump?  Is  spraying  alone  sufficient  to  keep 
plants  healthy?  Explain  the  different  formulas. 

Chapter  12 

We  now  pass  to  a  discussion  of  pastures, 
meadows  and  forage.  Relatively  few  of  the  agri- 
cultural crops  can  be  considered  to  be  funda- 
mental, that  is,  to  underlie  the  general  system 
of  agricultural  practice.  It  is  impossible  in  a 
work  of  limited  scope  to  discuss  the  cultivation 
of  many  crops,  but  some  of  the  principles  that 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  315 

underlie  crop  cultivation  can  be  well  illustrated 
with  a  few  examples.  Since  grasses  and  other 
forage  crops  are  of  such  universal  use,  these 
have  been  chosen  for  illustration.  Note  that  the 
chapter  begins  with  (1)  a  general  discussion  of 
the  importance  of  grasses;  (2)  permanent  pas- 
tures; (3)  meadows;  (4)  other  forage  plants. 

Why  is  grass  said  to  be  the  fundamental  crop?  What  is  meant 
by  the  term  "grass"  as  used  in  its  popular  or  general  -language 
sense  (3046-304e)?  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  "rota- 
tion of  crops?"  What  are  the  advantages  of  rotation?  How 
important  is  grass  in  such  a  system?  Give  one  or  two  examples 
of  good  rotation  of  crops  (3056).  Explain  how  the  number  of 
grass  plants  to  a  square  foot  may  be  modified  by  the  uses  to  which 
the  plants  are  to  be  put. 

What  is  a  "pasture?"  What  is  a  "permanent  pasture"  (307a)? 
How  should  the  land  be  prepared  for  the  making  of  a  permanent 
pasture.-'  Explain  how  pastures  may  be  made  on  different  kinds 
of  soil.  Explain  how  a  good  pasture  may  be  secured  on  land 
that  has  been  cropped  too  continually  and  failed  to  produce  well 
under  rotation.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  prepare  the  soil  for  per- 
manent pasture  very  thoroughly?  Why  does  the  pasture  tend  to 
fail  with  age? 

Name  some  of  the  kinds  of  grasses  that  may  be  employed  in 
the  making  of  a  permanent  pasture.  Why  are  clovers  said  to  be 
"host  plants"  to  the  grasses  (312,  312a)?  How  may  clovers  be 
maintained  in  pastures?  As  pastures  begin  to  fail  for  lack  of 
plant-food,  how  may  they  be  revived?  Explain  how  important 
constant  watchfulness  is  to  the  maintenance  of  a  permanent 
pasture.  What  is  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  ground  constantly 
and  evenly  covered  with  sward?  What  can  you  say  about  pas- 
turing too  close?  About  letting  the  grasses  run  to  seed?  What 
is  said  about  the  importance  of  shade  on  the  surface  of  the  pas- 
ture lands  and  how  it  may  be  secured?  Recapitulate  (as  in  para- 
graph 317)  the  essentials  in  the  making  and  keeping  of  pastures. 


316  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

What  is  a  "meadow?"  How  does  it  differ  from  a  pasture? 
What  is  an  average  yield  for  a  meadow?  What  is  the  importance 
of  a  meadow  in  the  rotation?  In  what  kinds  of  meadows  are  the 
largest  yields  usually  secured?  What  is  the  advantage  of  mixing 
clover  with  the  grasses?  What  are  the  advantages  of  mixed  and 
unmixed  meadows  for  hay?  What  is  the  lowest  average  yield  at 
which  a  meadow  can  be  considered  to  be  profitable? 

What  is  a  "permanent  meadow?"  When  may  such  meadows 
be  advisable?  What  is  the  problem  with  lowland  meadows?  How 
should  the  number  of  plants  per  square  foot  differ  between 
meadows  and  pastures?  How  may  meadows  be  tilled  or  prevented 
from  becoming  "hidebound?" 

Name  some  of  the  grasses  that  are  best  adapted  to  mer.dows. 
How  much  seed  may  be  sown  of  grasses  and  clover?  Name  some 
of  the  grasses  of  secondary  special  importance.  Suggest  how 
much  seed  may  be  required  to  an  acre. 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  "forage  plants?  "  By  "roughage" 
(see  glossary)?  What  are  "soiling"  plants?  What  general  re- 
marks can  you  make  about  the  growing  or  tilling  of  forage  plants? 
What  are  the  two  leading  forage  plants  of  the  United  States? 
Describe  them  and  tell  where  their  greatest  areas  of  production 
are.  Name  some  of  the  annual  forage  plants  of  secondary  value. 


PART    III.     THE   ANIMAL   AND    STOCK 

Note  that  there  are  two  general  subjects  con- 
sidered in  this  part  of  the  book.  These  subjects 
are:  the  animal  as  an  individual,  and  an  aggre- 
gation of  animals  known  as  live-stock.  Before 
one  can  handle  animals  in  groups  or  become  a 
stock  farmer,  he  must  know  the  characteristics 
of  the  individual  animals  and  how  to  feed  and 
treat  them.  This  part  of  the  book  is  divided 
into  four  general  parts:  (xin)  the  general  offices 


REVIEW    OP    THE    BOOK  317 

of  the  animal  to  agriculture;  (xiv)  animal  physi- 
ology, or  how  the  animal  lives  and  grows  and 
performs  its  functions;  (xv)  the  feeding  of  the 
animal  as  a  matter  of  farm  practice;  (xvi)  the 
general  management  of  the  stock. 


Chapter  13 

We  first  discuss  the  offices  of  the  animal.  Note 
that  the  offices  of  the  animal  as  related  to  the 
farm  are  thrown  into  several  general  heads. 
Cite  what  these  heads  are. 

Explain  the  offices  of  the  animal  as  outlined  in  paragraph  336. 
What  is  stock?  Name  some  of  the  animals  that  are  included 
under  this  term.  How  does  the  animal  have  relation  to  the  soil 
in  respect  to  maintaining  and  increasing  fertility?  What  relation 
has  stock  to  the  disposition  of  the  crops  of  the  farm?  Explain 
how  the  animal  itself  has  intrinsic  value  to  man.  Classify  the 
subject,  as  in  g4a,  4fc,  4c.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  phrase, 
"the  animal  as  a  beast  of  burden?"  In  what  ways  does  the  ani- 
mal perform  labor  for  the  farmer?  How  may  the  animal  act  as  a 
destroyer  of  pests?  What  influence  has  the  stock  industry  on  the 
diversification  of  labor?  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  "diversi- 
fication of  labor? " 

Chapter  14 

Note  that  there  are  six  coordinate  parts  in 
this  chapter  on  how  the  animal  lives.  Give  these 
six  parts  in  their  order  or  write  them  on  the 
blackboard. 

This     chapter     is     somewhat     technical,    and 


318  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

extra  time  should  be  given  to  it.  The  reader 
will  do  well  to  study  it  until  he  feels  a  sense  of 
mastery  of  the  subject  as  here  presented. 

What  is  a  cell?  Why  does  this  discussion  begin  with  the  cell? 
Discuss  single-celled  animals,  as  in  paragraphs  356-359.  Do  these 
lowly  animals  have  distinct  organs?  What  is  meant  by  "many- 
celled  animals?  "  What  are  the  offices  of  individual  cells  in  these 
many-celled  animals,  as  compared  with  that  of  single-celled 
animals?  What  is  meant  by  the  "process  of  nutrition?"  By  the 
"nervous  processes?"  By  the  "processes  of  secretion"  (363a)? 
What  are  glands  (3636),  and  what  are  some  of  their  offices? 
What  are  the  offices  of  the  corpuscles  of  the  blood?  With  what 
may  these  corpuscles  be  compared?  What  is  the  lymph  and  the 
lymphatic  system  (365,  365a)?  What  is  meant  by  a  specialized  and 
a  generalized  organ  or  organism  (360a)? 

What  are  the  kinds  of  food  as  outlined  in  367?  What  are 
herbivorous  animals?  Carnivorous?  How  do  the  digestive  organs 
of  the  herbivorous  animals  differ  from  others?  Compare  the 
digestive  apparatus  of  the  horse  with  that  of  the  ox.  How  does 
artificial  care  and  selection  modify  the  size  of  the  digestive  organs? 
What  must  all  foods  contain  in  order  to  be  of  use  to  the  animal? 
Name  nitrogenous  foods.  Name  non-nitrogeneus  foods.  What 
is  the  special  office  of  the  latter?  Are  the  non- nitrogenous  foods 
ever  formed  from  the  nitrogenous?  How?  What  is  meant  by  fat 
(371a)?  What  are  the  mineral  salts?  What  is  the  constitution  of 
ideal  food?  What  is  meant  by  a  well-balanced  ration?  Can  a 
definite  mathematical  ration  be  constructed  that  will  be  of  equal 
value  for  all  animals?  Explain. 

What  is  digestion?  What  is  the  alimentary  canal?  What  are 
the  digestive  secretions?  Discuss  saliva.  What  is  the  active 
principle  of  saliva,  and  what  is  its  office?  What  are  the  offices 
of  the  various  stomachs  in  ruminating  animals?  What  is  the 
office  of  the  chewing  of  the  cud?  How  do  the  salivary  glands 
differ  between  youth  and  age?  What  relation  has  this  to  the  kind 
of  food  that  an  animal  should  have?  What  are  the  three  digestive 
principles  produced  by  the  stomach?  Describe  them.  What  is 


REVIEW    OF    THE    BOOK  319 

an  antiseptic  (387a)?  What  is  pepsin  and  peptone?  How  are 
peptones  distinguished?  What  is  their  office?  What  is  the  milk- 
curdling  ferment?  What  is  a  ferment  (379a)?  What  is  rennet,  and 
for  what  is  it  used?  Where  is  the  gastric  juice  secreted  in  birds? 

What  digestion  takes  place  in  the  intestines?  Describe  the 
fluids  there  secreted.  What  is  bile  and  where  secreted?  What  is 
its  office?  Discuss  pancreatic  juice.  What  is  meant  by  an  emul- 
sion (396«)?  What  is  the  intestinal  juice? 

The  various  foods  having  been  digested,  they  are  now  to  be 
aborbed  or  taken  into  the  bodily  system.  Describe  how  they  are 
absorbed  by  means  of  villi.  Describe  what  a  villus  is.  Into 
what  fluids  do  these  digestive  matters  pass? 

The  blood  having  received  the  digested  foods,  these  materials 
now  go  to  various  parts  of  the  body  to  build  up  the  tissues  and 
repair  waste.  What  is  one  of  the  most  important  new  products 
resulting  from  digestion?  What  transformation  takes  place  in 
the  liver?  What  are  ptomaines  and  toxins  (409a)? 

What  is  breathing?  What  is  the  relative  constitution  of  in- 
haled and  exhaled  air?  How  is  the  air  brought  into  contact  with 
the  blood?  How  is  the  blood  circulated  in  the  warm-blooded 
animals?  What  is  the  nature  of  blood  as  it  goes  from  the  heart 
and  returns  to  it?  What  becomes  of  the  excess  of  oxygen  in  the 
new  or  pure  blood?  Where  does  the  real  effect  of  breathing  take 
place?  How  is  the  amount  of  needed  air  modified  by  the  con- 
dition or  activity  of  the  animal?  How  does  the  amount  vary  be- 
tween different  species  of  animals?  At  what  point  does  air  be- 
come unable  to  support  life  because  of  carbon  dioxid?  What  is 
the  value  of  good  ventilation?  Give  any  practical  hints. 

What  is  meant  by  "waste  of  tissue?"  Under  what  conditions 
does  waste  proceed  most  rapidly?  Under  what  conditions  is 
waste  repaired?  Does  the  waste  take  place  in  exact  proportion 
to  the  energy  or  work  expended  by  the  individual?  When  will 
the  animal  lay  up  fat?  Under  what  conditions  are  milk-pro- 
ducing animals  profitable  to  their  owners?  What  are  the  most 
favorable  conditions  for  the  fattening  of  animals?  What  are  the 
dangers  of  too  close  confinement?  Is  the  animal  body  to  be 
likened  to  a  mere  machine  (426)? 


320  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Chapter  15 

Note  the  four  co-ordinate  parts  into  which 
this  chapter  on  the  feeding  of  the  animal  is 
divided;  namely,  sources  from  which  animal 
food  is  secured,  how  the  animal  uses  the  food, 
the  composition  of  fodders,  and  the  practice  of 
feeding. 

What  is  the  nature  of  animal  food?  What  is  a  fodder?  What 
must  fodder  contain  in  order  to  be  useful? 

How  is  it  that  the  animal  is  able  to  secure  energy  from  the 
materials  stored  in  plants?  How  does  the  animal  first  expend 
energy  on  the  food?  How  may  the  profit  in  fodder  be  represented? 
Why  is  it  that  some  substances  that  contain  an  abundance  of 
plant-food  may  still  be  unprofitable  for  feeding?  Name  the  five 
ways  in  which  the  animal  uses  fodder.  When  the  food  is  scant 
and  insufficient,  how  is  it  used?  What  is  meant  by  "food  of 
maintenance,"  "food  of  support,"  and  "food  of  production?"  Is 
all  the  food  or  material  consumed  by  the  animal  of  use  to  it  in 
building  up  animal  tissue?  Why?  How  does  the  proportion  of 
food  digested  vary  in  different  animals?  How  does  it  vary  with 
the  character  of  the  food  itself  ? 

Name  the  various  classes  of  substances  which  compose  fod- 
ders. To  what  extent  is  water  present  in  fodders?  What  is  a  by- 
product (437a)?  What  is  the  use  of  the  water  to  animals?  How 
does  the  water  content  increase  the  value  of  fodder  in  general? 
What  is  ash?  From  what  sources  do  animals  secure  all  the  ash 
that  they  need?  What  is  the  importance  of  albuminoids  as  fodder 
constituents?  What  elements  do  they  contain?  How  does  the 
composition  of  albuminoids  vary?  What  are  carbohydrates? 
What  is  the  signification  of  the  term  from  the  chemical  point  of 
view  (445ffl)?  What  is  the  particular  office  of  carbohydrates? 
What  is  meant  by  fiber?  Discuss  the  importance  of  fats  in  fod- 
ders. How  is  the  feeding  value  of  fat  expressed  (449)? 

What  are  the  classes  of  fodder  that  are  of  distinct  use  to  the 


REVIEW    OF    THE    BOOK  321 

animal?  What  are  they  called  collectively?  What  ia  a  ration? 
What  is  a  balanced  ration?  What  is  a  nutritive  ration?  What  is 
a  "wide"  and  a  "narrow"  nutritive  ration?  Give  an  example  (as 
suggested  by  453<i).  What  is  the  value  of  the  nutritive  ration  in 
actual  feeding  practice?  Which  of  the  food  constituents  is  most 
likely  to  be  lacking  and  is  most  needful,  therefore,  to  be  supplied? 
On  what  does  the  quantity  of  food  required  by  an  animal  depend 
(458,  458a,  459)?  How  does  the  amount  vary  between  youth  and 
age?  How  is  the  profit  secured  from  feeding?  Upon  what  does 
the  amount  of  "food  for  production"  depend?  Give  an  illustra- 
tion (462).  Is  the  food  that  an  animal  actually  eats  a  measure  of 
the  amount  that  it  actually  needs?  Explain.  What  is  a  feeding 
standard?  Give  an  example.  How  may  these  feeding  standards 
be  varied?  What  is  the  advantage  of  mere  bulk  in  ration?  What 
are  the  substances  that  give  bulk  to  a  ration?  What  is  meant  by 
the  term  "coarse"  as  applied  to  fodders?  What  by  the  term 
"concentrated  fodders?"  What  is  the  danger  in  providing  a  too 
bulky  ration?  About  what  proportion  of  dried  matter  should  a 
particular  ration  contain  for  cud-chewing  animals?  For  horses? 
What  is  meant  by  palatableness?  What  is  its  value  in  fodders? 
Give  one  reason  why  silage  is  a  good  fodder.  What  is  silage  (469M? 
If  there  is  any  advantage  in  cooking  foods,  explain  what  it  is. 
What  is  the  advantage  of  cutting  or  shredding  fodders?  What  is 
the  advantage  of  variety  or  change  in  the  food  given  to  an  animal? 

Chapter  16 

A  brief  discussion  of  the  management  of  stock- 
may  now  be  undertaken.  Note  the  four  divisions 
into  which  this  chapter  falls:  as,  the  breeding 
of  stock,  where  stock  raising  is  advisable,  how 
much  stock  can  be  kept  on  a  given  area,  and 
the  care  of  stock  in  general. 

What  i8  meant  by  the  propagation  or  increase  of  the  race? 
What  is  necessary  beyond  the  mere  propagation  of  stock?  What 


322  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

is  breeding  and  what  are  its  two  objects?  What  is  a  breed?  Name 
breeds  in  various  classes  of  stock.  When  may  a  man  be  said  to 
be  a  stock-breeder?  What  is  meant  by  the  "mental"  ideal,  and 
what  is  its  value  in  stock-breeding?  When  may  the  ideal  be  im- 
practicable? How  does  the  ideal  vary  with  different  classes  of 
stock?  How  are  animals  judged  in  regard  to  their  excellence? 
What  is  meant  by  the  judging  or  the  scoring  of  animals  (481o)? 
If  possible,  apply  the  score  cards  on  pages  276  and  277  to  animals 
for  which  they  are  intended.  What  is  the  first  practice  in  breed- 
ing for  an  ideal?  What  is  the  second  point?  What  is  meant  by 
a  "prepotent"  animal?  Give  some  of  the  common  characteristics 
of  a  prepotent  animal.  What  is  a  "sport"?  What  importance  do 
these  sports  usually  have  in  the  improvement  of  the  race?  What 
is  meant  by  the  term  "fixed"  as  applied  to  breeding?  What  is  a 
pedigree?  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  pedigree  (486,  486a)? 
What  is  meant  by  pure-blooded  stock?  Is  pure  stock  always  to 
be  advised  for  the  general  farmer,  and  why?  How  may  the 
farmer  secure  the  advantages  of  good  breeding  (487,  487o)? 

In  what  regions  and  under  what  conditions  is  live  -  stock 
growing  particularly  advantageous?  Discuss  the  advantages  of 
the  West  and  South  where  the  range  areas  are  large.  Discuss 
the  narrow  and  sheltered  valleys  of  the  North.  What  is  the  gen- 
eral tendency  respecting  the  extent  of  stock  raising?  Name 
some  conditions  under  which  a  large  quantity  of  stock  can  not  be 
kept  with  the  most  profit.  Let  the  class  read  paragraph  491  in 
concert. 

How  much  stock  may  be  profitably  kept  on  an  acre  in  the  rich 
prairie  countries?  How  much  on  farms  in  the  East?  What  are 
the  two  theories  or  principles  controlling  the  quantity  of  stock  a 
farm  can  keep  with  profit?  Explain  the  practice  of  buying  stock 
to  feed.  What  are  the  economics  of  this  practice  when  figured 
on  the  basis  of  wheat  bran  (496,  497)?  When  is  this  practice  of 
stock-feeding  likely  to  be  profitable?  What  is  one  reason  for  the 
growth  of  this  practice  (499)?  What  is  the  value  of  stock- feeding 
in  respect  to  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  land  (500,  500a)? 

What  is  the  general  importance  of  making  animals  comfort- 
able? Discuss  ventilation,  and  how  secured.  Discuss  the  tern- 


KEVIEW    OF    THE    BOOK  323 

perature  at  which  stables  should  be  maintained.  Discuss  the 
importance  of  light,  and  how  it  may  be  controlled.  Discuss  also 
the  means  of  storing  the  manure.  Discuss  some  principles  that 
underlie  the  watering  of  animals.  How  does  the  ration  vary  with 
the  animal,  its  age,  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  kept? 
How  should  the  ration  and  time  of  feeding  be  governed?  What 
is  the  danger  of  feeding  too  much  at  any  one  time?  Let  the  class 
read  in  concert  paragraph  510a,  at  the  bottom  of  page  279. 


INDEX 


Accessories,  109. 

Acid  phosphate,  94,  95. 

Acid  soils,  97,  98,  104, ,189. 

Acidity,  234. 

.•Esthetic  tastes,  109. 

Agassiz,  referred  to,  35. 

Agricultural  chemistry,  9,  113. 

Agricultural  colleges,  2. 

Agricultural  physics,  6. 

Agriculture,  1,  11,  14. 

Air  in  soils,  38,  72. 

Albumin,  213,  219,  2r>:>. 

Albuminoids,  245,  246,  248,  257. 

Alfalfa,  192,  199. 

Alimentary  canal,  215,  233. 

Alkaline,  234. 

Alluvial  lands,  24. 

Alps,  denundation  of,  30. 

Amendments,  40,  97. 

Ammonia,  90,  91. 

Amtcba,  231. 

Amylopsin,  221. 

Anachuris  Canadensis,  128. 

Analysis  of  soil,  42. 

Angleworms,  17.  [271. 

Animal,  feeding  of,  240,  247,  266, 

Animal,  how  it  lives,  208. 

Animal  industry,  2,  3. 

Animal  locomotion,  7. 

Animal,  the,  201. 

Animals  and  soil-building,  16. 

Animals,  species  and  breeds,  14. 

Animal-Knowledge,  8. 


Antiseptic,  164,  173,  218,  234* 

Apiculture,  3. 

Apple,  propagation,  144. 

Apple,  varieties  of,  14. 

Apples,  108. 

Apples,  tilling,  161,  162. 

Apple-scab,  167,  175. 

Apple-worm,  205. 

Aquatic  plants,  19. 

Arthur  &  MacDougal,  128,  129,  131 

Arts,  animals  in,  203. 

Ash  in  foods,  242,  243. 

Ashes,  96. 

Assimilation  in  plants,  113,  128. 

Astronomy,  15. 

Atkinson,  referred  to,  124,  128, 131. 

Availability,  88,  104. 

Babcock  test,  278. 

Bacillus  ubiquitus,  35. 

Bacteria,  35,  167. 

Bailey,  quoted,   31,  33,  45,  76,  84, 

111,  129,  130,  131,  140,  157,  17L 
Banana,  1. 
Barley,  106. 

Barley  and  pastures,  181. 
Barley,  wild,  191. 
Barn,  268,  269. 
Barnes,  referred  to,  131. 
Barn-yard,  82,  85,  86. 
Bayous,  23. 

Bean,  germination,  124. 
Bean  soil,  1'J. 


(325) 


326 


INDEX 


Beans,  5,  92,  108. 

Beans  and  moisture,  57. 

Bedding,  267. 

Bee-culture,  3,  11. 

Beef,  11,  203. 

Beet,  sugar,  147. 

Beetles,  166. 

Bermuda  grass,  181. 

Beverage,  108.  109. 

Bicycle,  204. 

Bile,  220,  236. 

Birds,  digestion  in,  220. 

Birds,  tame,  204. 

Black-knot,  167. 

Blights,  167,  174. 

Blood,  210,  211,  222,  226. 

Blood,  dried,  92,  203,  206. 

Blue  grass,  181,  190,  195,  197. 

Bogs,  20,  181. 

Bone,  93,  207. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  169,  173,  177. 

Borers,  167,  168. 

Botany,  7,  15. 

Boulders,  24. 

Bran  for  feeding,  266. 

Breathing  in  animals,  224. 

Breeding,  8,  259. 

Breeds,  15. 

Brisket,  272,  276. 

Buckwheat,  79,  108,  136,  181. 

Bud  propagation,  136. 

Budding,  139,  140,  144. 

Buds,  opening,  130. 

Bulk  in  ration,  252. 

Burning  of  soils,  29. 

Business,  4,  9. 

Butter,  1,  11,  202. 

Buttermilk,  255. 

By-products,  255,  266. 

Cabbage,  club-root,  175. 


Calcium,  87,  116. 

California  Experiment  Station,  63. 

Callus,  138. 

Cambium,  121,  139. 

Canned  fruits,  11. 

Capacity  of  soil,  50,  59,  157. 

Capillary  water,  48,  55,  5«,  150, 157. 

Carbohydrate,  127,  243,  246,  256. 

Carbon  dioxid,  104,  117,  118.    127 

129,  224.  235. 

Carbonate  of  copper,  169,  177. 
Care  of  stock,  258. 
Carex,  194. 
Carnation,  14,  106. 
Carnivorous  animals,  108,  212 
Casein,  213,  218,  219,  256. 
Catch-crops,  78,  80. 
Cats,  108,  204. 

Cattle,  3,  14,  108,  201,  212,  272. 
Cauliflowers,  109. 
Cavanaugh,  chapter  by,  87. 
Cereals,  181,  263. 
Charcoal,  104. 
Chautauqua  belt,  14. 
Checking  growth,  165. 
Cheese,  1,  11,  219,  235. 
Chemical  action,  32. 
Chemicals  in  schools,  105. 
Chemistry,  8,  13,  15. 
Chester,  quoted,  34. 
Chicken,  3,  235. 
Chine,  272. 
Chlorophyll,  118. 
Chrysanthemum,  14 
Chyle,  235. 
Cider,  1,  109. 
Cion,  139,  144. 
Civil  engineering,  7. 
Clay,  moisture  in,  51 
Climatology,  9. 
Climate,  3,  9,  107,  111. 


INDEX 


327 


Clinton  L.  A.,  chapter  by,  47. 

Clinton,  L.  A.,  referred  to,  76. 

Clod-crushers,  69. 

Clothing,  1.  [80,  81,  84. 

Clover,  green-crop,  22,  67,  78,  79, 

Clover  in  meadows,  181,  186,  189, 

Clover  roots,  110.  [193,  199. 

Clover,  plant-food  in,  203,  206. 

Clover,  seed-bed  for,  151. 

Clovers  and  nitrogen,  92 

Club-root,  175. 

Cobbett's  Tull,  72. 

Colleges,  2. 

Come  true,  136,  140. 

Comfrey,  191. 

Commercial  fertilizer,  95>  98,  203. 

Compost,  34,  82. 

Compounds,  88,  103. 

Condiments,  109.  [71. 

Conservation   of  moisture,  56,  65, 

Constituents  of  food,  213,  242,  2C6. 

Constitutional   troubles,    166,    167, 

Cooking  food,  254.  [170,  174. 

Copper  fungicide,  169. 

Corn.     See  maize. 

Cornell  Experiment  Station,  63. 

Cotton,  109,  120. 

Cotton-seed  meal,  267. 

Cover-crops,  52,  79,  80,  162. 

Covered  yard,  82,  85,  86. 

Cow,  air  required  by,  228,  269 

Cow,  points  of,  273. 

Cows,  feeding,  267. 

Cows,  standard  for,  252. 

Cow-peas,  79. 

Crabs,  206. 

Crop  of  fowl,  220,  235. 

Crops,  106,  202. 

Cultivators,  69. 

Culture,  72. 

Currant  bug,  174. 


Currants,  cuttings,  138. 
Cut-flowers,  109. 
Cuttings,  138,  142. 
Cypress  knees,  127. 

Dairy  husbandry,  3. 

Daisies  in  meadows,  31,  170. 

Darwin,  quoted,  13,  33. 

Davy,  work  of,  13. 

DeCandolle,  quoted,  14. 

Delta,  35. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  13. 

Dewlap,  273,  277. 

Dicalcic  phosphate,  95. 

Digestion,  215,  240. 

Discovery,  12. 

Diseases,  8,  10, 162. 

Ditches,  53,  60. 

Diversification  of  labor,  205,  207. 

Dogs,  108,  204.  [265,  278. 

Drag,  76. 

Drainage,  53,  60. 

Drains,  48,  53,  60. 

Dressings,  83. 

Dressings  for  wounds,  164. 

Dried  blood,  92,  203,  206. 

Dried  meat,  206. 

Droughts,  49,  24. 

Ducks,  3,  200. 

Duggar,  B.  M.,  chapter  by,  112. 

Dust  in  air,  35. 

Dwarfing,  137,  144. 

Dyes,  109. 

Earth-mulch,  57,  65,  69,  71,  149. 

Earthworms.  17,  33. 

Ecology,  8,  13. 

Eel-grass,  19. 

Egg.  white  of,  213,  256. 

Eggs,  1,  11,  202. 

Elements,  87,  103. 


328 


INDEX 


Elodea  Canadensis,  128. 
Emulsions,  168,  175,  221,  235. 
Enemies  of  plants,  166. 
Energy,  240. 
Engineering,  7. 
Enriching  land,  77. 
Ensilage.     See  silage. 
Entomology,  15. 
Environment,  8,  13. 
Escutcheon,  273,  276. 
Evaporated  fruits,  1  [125. 

Evaporation  from  plants,  113,  114, 
Exhausted  lands,  27. 
Experiment  stations,  2,  13. 
Exploration,  12. 
Extensive  farming,  86. 

Facto.rv.  11. 

Fallowing,  158. 

Fall-plowing,  40. 

Farming,  1,  11. 

Farm-manures,  41. 

Farm-practice,  4,  28. 

Farm  resources,  77. 

Fats  in  food,  213,  229,  243,  247,  256. 

Feed-mills,  7. 

Feeding  of   animal,  240,  247,  260, 

Feeding  standards,  252.  [271. 

Ferment,  233. 

Fertility,  real,  77. 

Fertilizer,  41,  43,  95,  98,  203. 

Fertilizers,  brands  of,  15. 

Fescue,  190,  191. 

Fiber  in  foods,  243,  246. 

Fibers,  2,  28,  109. 

Fibrin,  219. 

Film  moisture,  49,  59. 

Fish,  3,  201,  203. 

Fish,  ground,  204,  206,  207. 

Flax,  109. 

Flesh  is  grass,  108, 


Float,  71. 

Floating  islands,  20. 

Floriculture,  3,  109, 

Florists'  plants,  46. 

Flour,  11. 

Flower-pot  experiment,  57,  59. 

Flowers,  varieties,  15. 

Fodder,  109,  239. 

Food  constituents,  213,  243,  267. 

Food,  cooking,  255.  [271 

Food  of  animals,  108,  212,  240,  243. 

Food,  quantity  of,  250,  258,  266. 

Forage,  109,  191. 

Forcing-house,  86. 

Forest  a  crop,  106. 

Forestry,  2,  3,  12,  111. 

Fowls,  3,  259. 

Fowls,  digestion  in,  220. 

Foxes,  212. 

Free  water,  48,  50. 

Freezing  pulverizes  soil,  68. 

Frigid  zones,  plants  in,  119. 

Fruit-evaporating  machinery,  7. 

Fruit-growing,  3,  11,  80,  96. 

Fruit  plantations,  tilling,  161, 

Fuchsias,  cuttings,  138. 

Fungi,  166,  167,  169,  173. 

Fungicides,  169. 

Furrow,  72. 

l-'urrow-slice,  74. 

Gang-plows,  163,  171. 

Ganong,  quoted,  33. 

Garden,  12. 

Gastric  juice,  215,  218. 

Gaye,  quoted,  33,  36,  129 

Geese,  3. 

Geike,  referred  to,  30. 

Geology,  9,  14. 

Geraniums,  cuttings,  138. 

German  peasants,  200 


INDEX 


329 


Germination,  116,  124,  133,  135. 

Germs,  21,  35,  91. 

Gills,  225. 

Ginger,  109. 

Gizzard,  220,  235. 

Glaciers,  24,  35. 

Glands,  210,  232. 

Gluten,  213,  218,  219. 

Gluten-meal,  267. 

Glycogen,  211,  213,  232. 

Grafting,  137,  138,  139,  144. 

Grain-feeders,  212. 

Grains,  2,  109. 

Grains  and  phosphoric  acid,  93. 

Gramineae,  193. 

Granite,  wearing  away,  30. 

Grape  districts,  277. 

Grape  mildew,  107. 

(trapes,  cuttings,  138,  142. 

Grass,  179,  189,  193. 

Grass  and  daisies,  31. 

Grass-feeders,  212. 

Gravitation  and  growth,  122. 

Green-crops,  plowing  under,  00,  0 

Green-manures,  21,  41,  52,  78,  79. 

Growth  and  nitrogen,  89. 

Growth,  in  plants,  113,  120,  121. 

Growth  processes,  120,  121. 

Grub,  white,  205. 

Gypsum,  95,  105,  123. 

Habitableness,  107. 
Hair-waste,  204. 
Half-way  stone,  32. 
Happiness,  6. 
Hard-pan,  67,  74. 
Harrows,  69,  155,  160. 
Harvesting  machinery,  7. 
Hay  raising,  185. 
Heading-in,  166. 
Heart,  225,  228,  238. 


Heat  and  germination,  133. 

Heat  and  plants,  119. 

Heat-producing,  229,  246,  256. 

Hellebore,  169. 

Hemp,  109. 

Herbage  and  plowing,  67,  68. 

Herbivorous  animals,  108,  212. 

Hogs.     See  pigs  and  swine. 

Hoes,  69. 

Honeysuckle,  layering,  142. 

Hoof-meal,  204,  206. 

Hop  districts,  277. 

Horn,  204. 

Horse,  air  required  by,  269. 

Horse,  intestine  of,  212. 

Horse,  trotting,  275. 

Horses,  3,  108,  201,  212. 

Horses,  food  of,  212,  272. 

Horses,  standards  for,  252. 

Horticulture,  2,  3,  12. 

Hortus,  12. 

Host,  167,  174,  183,  197. 

Housing  of   animals,  258,266,272. 

Hudson,  palisades  of,  30. 

Humus,  20,  22,  34,  41,  51,  52,  77, 

78,  81,  91,  93,  96,  149,  194,  264. 
Hungarian  grass,  193. 
Hunting,  12. 
Husbandry,  2,  11,  28. 
Hydraulic  rams,  7. 
Hydrochloric  acid  in  stomach,  218. 
Hydrogen,  90. 
Hydroscopic  water,  48,  49. 

Implements,  66,  69,  71,  74,  75,  76, 

158,  160,  162,  171. 
Indian  corn.     See  maize. 
Inorganic  matter,  16,  28. 
Insalivation,  216. 
Insecticides,  168. 
Insects,  fighting,  15,  161,  166,  168. 


330 


INDEX 


Intensive  farming,  79,  84,  265. 
Internode,  121. 
Inter-tillage,  64,  72. 
Intestinal  juice,  215,  220,  221. 
Intestines,  sizes  of,  212. 
Iodine,  130,  233. 
Iron,  87. 

Irrigation,  48,  58. 
Irritability,  122. 
Islands,  floating,  20. 

Japan  clover,  79,  182,  194,  197. 
Jellies,  11. 

Judging  animals,  261,  273,  275. 
June  grass,  181,  190,  195,  197. 
Jute,  109. 

Kansas  Experiment  Station,  63. 
Kerosene  and  emulsion,  168,  175. 
King,  quoted,  13,  33,  35,  36,  43,  45, 

63,  72,  111. 
Kitchen-garden  vegetables,  3,  12. 

Lagoons,  19,  23,  107. 

Lakes  and  soil,  19. 

Land  defined,  16. 

Landscape  horticulture,  3,  109. 

Law,  James,  chapter  by,  208. 

Lawn,  3,  109. 

Layers,  137,  142. 

Leachy  soils,  38,  39,  50,  91. 

Leaf-blights,  174. 

Leaf-hoppers,  168. 

Leaves,  84. 

Leguminous  plants,  79,  80  181,  192. 

Lespedeza  bicolor,  194. 

Lichen,  31. 

Liebig,  work  of,  13. 

Lilacs,  layering,  142. 

Lime,  45,  87,  97. 

Lime  and  phosphorus,  94. 


Lime  and  sulfuric  acid,  33 
Litmus  paper,  98,  104,  234. 
Liver,  220,  223. 
Live-stock,  263. 
Loam,  20,  51. 
Locomotion,  animal,  7. 
Lodeman,  referred  to,  177. 
Loin,  273,  276,  277. 
London  purple,  168,  176. 
Longevity  of  seeds,  133,  141. 
Lubbock,  quoted,  30. 
Lucerne,  199. 
Lumber,  12,  109. 
Lungs,  225,  226,  238,  246. 
Luxuries,  5,  109. 
Lymph,  211,  222,  232,  236. 

Machinery,  7. 

Maize,  5,  26,  31,  47,  57,  58,  79. 

Maize  and  live-stock,  264,  266. 

Maize  and  oxygen,  117. 

Maize,  food  in,  278. 

Maize  forage,  192. 

Maize,  re  germination,  136. 

Maize,  seed-bed  for,  148, 152. 

Maize,  tilling,  160,  170. 

Mai -nutrition,  8. 

Mammals,  3. 

Management  of  stock,  259. 

Mangrove,  19,  33. 

Manufacture,  2,  11,  15. 

Manures,  21,  41,  52,  65,  81,  82,  89, 

93,  201,  206,  265,  268. 
Many-celled  animals,  208. 
Marble,  wearing  away,  30,  32. 
Market-gardening,  86,  265. 
Market  problems,  5. 
Marl,  83. 

Marsh  grasses,  19. 
Match,  104. 
Mathematics,  15. 


INDEX 


331 


Meadows,  harrowing,  160. 

Meadows,  making,  185. 

Meal  for  feeding,  267. 

Meat,  5,  202. 

Meat,  dried,  206. 

Mechanics,  7. 

Medicine,  2,  8. 

Medicines,  109. 

Mellow  soils,  38,  39. 

Melon  and  cold,  120. 

Merrill,  referred  to,  36. 

Meteorology,  9. 

Microbe,  35. 

Micro-organisms,  22,  34. 

Micro-organisms  and  ferment,  232. 

Micro-organisms  and  nitrogen,  91. 

Milch  cow,  care  of,  230. 

Mildews,  167,  174. 

Milk,  1. 

Milk-curdling  ferment,  218,  221. 

Milk  machinery,  7. 

Milk  secreted,  211. 

Mining,  12. 

Mixed  husbandry,  11,  28,  279. 

Moisture  and  germination,  133,  141. 

Moisture,  conservation,  56,  65,  71. 

Moisture  in  soils,  38,  47. 

Mold,  20,  51. 

Molds,  173. 

Molecules,  32. 

Monocalcic  phosphate,  95. 

Monuments,  wearing  away,  30. 

Moss,  31,  33. 

Mountains,  16,  29. 

Muck,  83. 

Mulch  of  soil,  57,  65,  69,  71,  14!). 

Muley,  262. 

Mullein,  36. 

Muriate  of  potash,  96,  123. 

Muriatic  acid  in  stomach,  218. 

Muscle  cell,  231 


Mustard,  79. 
Muzzle,  273,  276,  277. 

Nebraska  Experiment  Station,  63. 
Nervous  processes,  210. 
Nicholson,  quoted,  14. 
Nile,  24. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  90,  92. 
Nitrates,  90,  91,  104. 
Nitrification,  38,  65,  91. 
Nitrites,  104. 

Nitrogen,  87,89,  98,  101,  116,  203. 
Nitrogen,  amount  in  soil,  25. 
Nitrogen-gatherers,  79,  80, 181,  192. 
Nitrogen  in  food,  213,  245. 
Numbers  of  species,  14. 
Nurserymen's  moss,  33. 
Nutrition  in  cells,  210. 
Nutritive  ratio,  247,  257. 

Oats,  47,  79. 
Oats  for  forage,  193. 
Oats,  regermination,  136. 
Oats,  water  in,  47. 
Offices  of  the  plant,  106. 
Oil-meal,  267. 
Oil  of  vitriol,  92,  94. 
Olericulture,  3. 
Onion  seeds,  133,  136. 
Opium,  109. 

Optimum  temperature,  119,  134. 
Orange,  budding,  144. 
Oranges,  108.  [197. 

Orchard-grass,    110,  181,   190,    196, 
Orchards,  tilling,  161.  [66. 

Organic  matter,  16,  19,  28,  33,  34, 
Organic  matter  removed  by  burn- 
Organisms,  21.  [ing>  29. 
Ornamental  plants,  3,  109. 
Ornithology,  8,  15. 
Osmosis,  113, 


332 


INDEX 


Ostreaculture,  3. 

Ox,  212. 

Oxen,  standards  for,  252. 

Oxygen,  90,  116,  129. 

Oxygen  and  germination,  133,  134. 

Oxygen  in  blood,  211,  223,  246. 

Oxygen  in  breathing,  224. 

Oyster-raising,  3. 

Palatability,  244,  254. 

Palisades,  30. 

Pancreatic  juice,  215,  221. 

Paradise,  12. 

Parasitic  fungi,  166,  173. 

Paris  green,  168,  176. 

Parkinson's  book,  13. 

Parsnip  seeds,  133. 

Particles  of  soil,  size  of,  39,  43,  44. 

Pastures,  harrowing,  160,  181. 

Pastures,  permanent,  180,  197. 

Pathology,  8. 

Pea  family,  79. 

Pea  mildew,  167. 

Pea,  regermination,  136. 

Peach,  budding,  144. 

Peaches,  106. 

Pear-blight,  167. 

Pear,  propagating,  144. 

Pears,  tilling,  162. 

Peas,  92,  193. 

Peas,  to  prevent  erosion,  51. 

Peat,  20,  83. 

Pedigree,  262,  263,  278. 

Pepsin,  218. 

Peptones,  219,  223. 

Perennials,  146. 

Perfumery,  109. 

Pests,  10,  167. 

Pests  and  stock,  205. 

Pets,  204. 

Phleum  pratense,  195. 


Phosphate,  88,  94,  95,  104. 

Phosphatic  rocks,  94. 

Phosphoric  acid,  25,  93,  98,  101. 

Phosphorus,  87,  88,  104,  116,  203. 

Physics,  6.  [170,  174. 

Physiological    troubles,    166,    167, 

Physiology,  8. 

Pigs.     See  also  swine. 

Pigs,  standards  for,  252. 

Pin-bone,  273,  276,  278. 

Flanker,  71,  75,  76. 

Plant-food  denned,  128. 

Plant-food  elements,  87. 

Plant,  how  it  lives,  112. 

Plant-knowledge,  7. 

Plant-lice,  166,  168. 

Plants,  species  and  varieties,  14. 

Plaster,  95. 

Plowing,  66,  162,  171. 

Plowing  green-crops,  60,  65. 

Plowing  to  dry  the  land,  68. 

Plows,  73,  74. 

Plum,  budding,  144. 

Plum-rot,  175. 

Poa  pratensis,  195. 

Points  of  animals,  262,  273,  275. 

Poisons  for  insects,  168. 

Pomace,  84,  256. 

Pomology,  3. 

Ponds  and  soil,  19. 

Pork.  203. 

Pot,  with  plant,  46. 

Potash,  95,  98,  101. 

Potash,  amount  in  soil,  25. 

Potassium,  87,  104,  116. 

Potato-bugs,  169. 

Potato  mildew,  167. 

Potato,  propagation,  146,  155. 

Potato  refuse,  78. 

Potato,  seed-bed  for,  154,  15S. 

Potato  tuber,  124. 


INDEX 


333 


Potato,  varieties  of,  14. 
Potatoes,  1,  96,  108. 
Potatoes  and  muriate,  96. 
Potatoes,  tilling,  ICO. 
Potatoes,  water  in,  47. 
Potential  plant-food,  3C 
Poultry,  breeds  of,  260. 
Poultry-raising,  3,  203. 
Prairies,  stock  on,  266. 
Precipices,  30. 
Precipitate,  235. 
Precipitation,  59. 
Prepotent,  261. 

reventives  for  pests,  167. 
Principles,  15. 
Principles  of  pruning,  165. 
Propagation  of  plants,  132. 
Prophylaxis,  175. 
Proteids,  247,  248. 
Protein,  243,  244,  248. 
Protoplasm,  113,  127. 
Proventrieulus,  220,  235. 
Pruning,  163. 
Ptomaines,  224,  236. 
Ptyalin,  216,  233. 
Puddling,  68. 
Pump,  7,  169,  170,  177. 
Pumpkin,  germination,  124. 
Pure-blood  stock,  263. 
l»urse,  278. 

Quack-grass,  31. 

Quadrupeds,  201. 

Quantity  of  food,  250,  258,  266 

Quarries,  30. 

Quarter,  273. 

Quick-lime,  40,  97. 

Quince,  propagation,  144. 

Quinces,  109. 

Quinine,  109. 

Rabbits,  204. 


Ragweed,  31. 

Rain  drops,  35. 

Rainfall,  48,  50,  59,  63,  107. 

Rakes,  69. 

Range,  263. 

Rape,  79. 

Ratio,  nutritive,  247,  357. 

Ration,  214,  250,  271. 

Red-clover  is  tap-rooted,  146,  147 

Red-top,  181,  190. 

Refuse,  78. 

Regennination,  136. 

Remedies  for  pests,  167. 

Rennet,  235. 

Reservoir  for  water,  54,  63,  67. 

Resources  of  soil,  25. 

Respiration  in  animals,  224. 

Respiration  in  plants,  117. 

Rest  of  animals,  228. 

Resting  the  land,  80. 

Retentive  soils,  38,  39. 

Reverted  phosphate,  95. 

Ribs,  273. 

Rice,  108. 

Rill,  35.  [179,259. 

Roberts,   I.    P.,  chapters    by,  145, 

Roberts,  quoted,  25,  35,  36,  45,  63, 

72,  74,  76,  84,  86,  105,  207. 
Rock  and  soil,  16,  42. 
Roller,  71,  76,  155. 
Root  crops,  96. 
Root,  evolution  of,  31. 
Root,  growth  of,  121,  131. 
Root-hairs,  113,  124. 
Root-pressure,  115,  125. 
Root-pruning,  165.          [32,  8b,  104. 
Roots  and  soil  formation,   16.   21, 
Rose-bug,  175. 
Rot  of  plum,  175. 
Rotation,  79,  179,  197,  207. 
Rotation  and  pests,  168. 


334 


INDEX 


Rotten  stones,  23. 
Roughage,  191. 
Ruminants,  216,  253. 
Rump,  273,  274,  278. 
Rusts,  174. 

Rye  and  pastures,  181. 
Rye  for  forage,  192. 
Rye  to  plow  under,  G7,  79. 
Rye,  to  prevent  erosion,  51. 

Saliva,  215,  232. 

Saltpetre,  90. 

Salts,  115,  123,  214. 

Sand-bars,  35. 

Sand,  moisture  in,  51. 

Sand-storms,  25. 

Sands  held  by  plants,  111. 

Sap,  114,  115,  124,  126,  131. 

Saprophyte,  173. 

Sawdust,  83. 

Scab,  107. 

Scale  insects,  166,  168. 

Scales,  experiment  with,  59. 

Sciences,  5. 

Sea  crabs,  200. 

Sea  margins,  19. 

Seaweed,  31. 

Sea-wrack,  19. 

Season  to  prune,  164. 

Secretion,  210. 

Sedges,  19,  193. 

Seed,  155. 

Seedage,  133,  135. 

Seed-bed,  70,  71,  134,  145,  155. 

Seedlings,  raising  of,  135. 

Seeds,  germination,  133,  142,  145. 

Semi-staples,  108. 

Shade,  108. 

Shaler,  referred  to,  36. 

Sheep,  3,  108,  201,  212. 

Sheep  stomach,  233. 


Sheltering  manure,  82. 
Ships  dusty  at  sea,  36. 
Shower,  35. 
Silage,  254,  258. 
Silicon,  87. 
Silo,  258,  265. 
Single-celled  animals,  208. 
Slips,  138. 
Smuts,  170,  178. 
Snowballs,  layering,  140. 
Soaking  seeds,  134. 
Soap  washes,  108. 
Sod,  influence  on  soil,  21,  68. 
Sod  in  orchards,  101. 
Sodium,  110. 
Soil  and  stock,  202. 
Soil,  contents  of,  16,  42. 
Soil,  moisture  in,  50. 
Soil-mulch,  57,  05,  09,  71,  149. 
Soil  particles,  size  of,  39,  43,  44. 
Soil,  texture  of,  37. 
Soiling  crops,  191. 
Sorauer,  referred  to,  124,  120,  127. 
--Specialized,  232. 

Specialty-farming,  11,  279.  [14. 
Species,  number  of  in  cultivation, 
Speculation,  12.  [by,  37. 

Spencer,  J.  W.,  quoted  35;  chapter 
Sphagnum,  20,  33. 
Spices,  109. 
Spittle,  232. 
Spores,  109,  218,  234. 
Sport,  262. 
Spraying,  165,  169. 
Springs,  48,  50. 
Squash-bug,  167. 
Squash,  seedling  of,  131. 
Squashes  and  moisture,  57. 
Stable-manure,  21,  41. 
Stable-manures,  65,  81,  82,  89,  93, 
201,  265,  268. 


INDEX 


335 


Stables,  82,  86,  258,  269,  272. 

Standards,  feeding,  252. 

Staples,  5,  108. 

Starch,  28,  118,  127,  129,  130,  233. 

Starch  equivalent,  247. 

Starch  in  food,  213,  246. 

Steer,  score  of,  277. 

Stem,  growth  of,  121,  130. 

Stifle,  273. 

Stink-bug,  167. 

Stock,  3,  201. 

Stock  and  pastures,  181. 

Stock,  care  of,  259. 

Stock,  in  grafting,  139. 

Stockbridge,  referred  to,  36. 

Stomach,  212,  233. 

Stomata,  114,  117,  124. 

Stones  grow  smaller,  30. 

Stones,  rotten,  23. 

Stratification,  136. 

Straw,  83. 

Streams,  action  of,  35. 

Streams  carry  soil,  23. 

Struggle  for  existence  in  tree-top* 

163,  173. 

Stubble  and  plowing,  68. 
Stubble  refuse,  78,  80. 
Sturtevant,  quoted,  14. 
Subsoil,  74. 
Subsoiling,  68. 
Subsurface,  155. 
Sulfate  of  ammonia,  92. 
Sulfate  of  potash,  96. 
Sulfur,  87,  116. 
Sulfur  fungicide,  169. 
Sulfuric  acid,  33,  92,  94,  95. 
Sugar,  28. 
Sugar-beet,  147. 

Sugar-cane  and  muriate,  96,  140. 
Sugar  in  plant,  120,  127,  131. 
Sugar  in  digestion,  223. 


Sugars  in  food,  213,  246. 

Summer-fallowing,  158. 

Sunlight  and  growth,  118. 

Superphosphate,  104. 

Surgery,  8. 

Swamps,  20. 

Sweat,  211. 

Sweet  potatoes,  148. 

Sweet  vernal  grass,  191. 

Swine,  201. 

Swine  and  pests,  205. 

Swine,  feeding,  272. 

Switch,  273. 

Symbols  of  elements,  103. 

Syringe,  169. 

Tankage,  203,  206. 

Tap-roots,  110,  147. 

Tarr,  referred  to,  14,  35,  36. 

Teats,  273,  276. 

Temperature  for  barns,  270. 

Temperature  for  germination,  134. 

Temperature  of  soil,  38. 

Texas  steer,  '212. 

Textiles,  109. 

Texture  of  soil,  31. 

Thawing,  influence  on  soils,  08. 

Thinning,  106. 

Threshers,  7. 

Thrips,  168. 

Thurl,  273,  276,  278. 

Tillage  and  water  capacity,  54,  03. 

Tillage  defined,  64,  72. 

Tillage  of  the  soil,  64,  159. 
I  Timber,  2,  3,  109. 

Timothy  for  meadows,  186, 189,  199 

Timothy,  picture  of,  195,  196. 

Toadstools,  173. 
'  Tobacco  and  muriate,  96. 

Tobacco  insecticide,  168. 

Tomatoes,  106. 


336 


INDEX 


Tools,    60,   69,    71,  74,  75,  70,  158, 
Toxins,  224,  236.         [160,  162,  171. 
Training,  163. 
Transpiration,  114,  120,  125. 
Transportation,  11,  15. 
Transportation  of  soils,  2'2. 
Tricalcic  phosphate,  94. 
Trifolium   hybridum,  incarnatum, 
medium,  pratense,    repens,   193, 
Trimming,  163.  [194. 

Tropical  plants,  119. 
Trypsin,  221. 
Tull,  Jethro,  44,  72. 
Turgidity,  113,  127. 
Turkeys,  3,  201. 

Odder,  273,  276. 
Underdrainage,  40,  53,  60. 

Valleys,  16. 

Vegetables,  3,  11,  109. 

Ventilation,  228,  269. 

Viability,  133. 

Vilmorin,  quoted,  14. 

Villus,  222,  235,  236. 

Vineyards  and  rose-bugs,  175. 

Vitality  of  seeds,  133. 

Vitriol,  oil  of,  92,  94.  [206. 

Voorhees,  referred  to,  84,  8fl,  105, 

Waste  in  animals,  228,  229. 

Water,  amount  soil  will  hold,  47,  59. 

Water,  driving  off  by  heat,  29. 

Water  for  stock,  271. 

Water  in  foods,  243. 

Water  in  the  plant,  113,  114. 

Water-lily,  19. 

Water  moves  lands,  23. 

Water  plants,  19. 

Water-sprouts,  165. 


Water-table,  40,  46. 

Water  used  by  plants,  63,  74. 

Weather,  9,  10. 

Weathering,  16,  30. 

"Weeds,  69,  70,  76,  81,  159,  160,  170, 

Weeds  and  stock,  205.  [179. 

Weeds,  kinds,  15. 

Weevils,  175. 

Weight  of  water  on  acre,  63. 

Wells,  48. 

Wheat,  1,  4,  26,  108,  198. 

Wheat  and  mullein,  36. 

Wheat  and  pastures,  181. 

Wheat,  germination,  124,  136. 

Wheat,  propagation,  132. 

Wheat,  seed-bed  for,  148,  152,  155, 

Wheat,  tilling,  160.  [158. 

WTheeler,  referred  to,  45. 

White  hellebore,  169. 

Willow,  31,  146. 

Windbreaks,  107,  111. 

Windmills,  7. 

Winds  and  soils,  24. 

Wine,  11,  109. 

Wring,  H.  H.,  chapter  by,  240. 

Wing,  H.  H.,  referred  to,  278. 

Wisconsin,  University  of,  13,  277. 

Withers,  273,  276. 

Wolves,  212. 

Wood  or  timber,  2,  3. 

Wood  products,  109. 

Wool,  1. 

Wool-waste,  204. 

Work  of  animals,  228. 

Worms,  166, 169. 

Worn-out  lands,  21. 

Wounds,  healing,  163,  164. 

Zoology,  8. 


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the  extended  accounts  of  the  different  genera,  the  work  will  be  in 
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